Vasculitis and Thrombophlebitis Treatment & Management

  • Author: Nadia Jennifer Chiara Luca, MD; Chief Editor: Lawrence K Jung, MD   more...
 
Updated: Oct 15, 2010
 

Medical Care

The management of children with Kawasaki disease involves hospital admission and treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin and high-dose aspirin in the acute phase of the illness.[25] Subsequently, daily low-dose aspirin is given for 6-8 weeks until follow-up echocardiography.

The management of children with Henoch-Schönlein purpura is primarily symptomatic, and most patients do not require hospital admission. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can be given for joint pain or swelling. Corticosteroids may be considered in selected patients (ie, those with severe GI symptoms),[26] but is an area of controversy in the literature.[27]

Patients with chronic vasculitides should be managed by a multidisciplinary group of specialists (eg, rheumatologists, cardiologists, nephrologists) and require long-term follow-up for monitoring of relapses, disease activity, end-organ damage and morbidity associated with therapy.

No therapeutic trials have looked at management of vasculitis in the pediatric population, and practice has been based on adult guidelines, which have been summarized.[28, 29] These recommendations provide general guidance that should be modified based on the features of each individual’s illness.

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis

In general, adult patients with ANCA vasculitis are categorized according to different levels of severity to assist treatment decisions, as proposed by the European Vasculitis Study (EUVAS) group.[28]

Table 1. EUVAS disease categorization of ANCA-associated vasculitis (Open Table in a new window)

CategoryDefinition
LocalizedUpper and/or lower respiratory tract disease without any other systemic



involvement or constitutional symptoms



Early



systemic



Any, without organ-threatening or life-threatening disease
GeneralizedRenal or other organ-threatening disease, serum creatinine >500



μmol/L (5.6 mg/dL)



SevereRenal or other vital organ failure, serum creatinine >500 μmol/L (5.6 mg/dL)
RefractoryProgressive disease unresponsive to glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide

Induction therapy

For patients with generalized disease (renal or other major organ involvement), induction therapy should be administered as a combination of cyclophosphamide and glucocorticoids. High-dose prednisone (1 mg/kg) should be maintained for 1 month. When rapid effect is needed, intravenous (IV) pulsed methylprednisolone may be used in addition to the oral prednisone.

Local guidelines for the prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis should be followed in all patients. Cyclophosphamide use should be limited to 3-6 months because of potential for long-term toxicity. However, no consensus about whether pulse IV cyclophosphamide is superior to daily oral therapy. All patients who receive cyclophosphamide should also receive prophylaxis against Pneumocystis jiroveci (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or pentamidine), especially those with Wegener granulomatosis.

For patients with mild-to-moderate disease, methotrexate can be used as a less toxic alternative for cyclophosphamide.

Plasma exchange is recommended as adjunctive therapy for patients with rapidly progressive severe renal disease.

Maintenance therapy

Once remission is achieved, cyclophosphamide may be switched to either methotrexate or azathioprine. The use of low-dose glucocorticoids (10 mg/d of prednisone) is also recommended. Maintenance therapy should be continued for at least 18-24 months and early cessation is associated with an increased risk of relapse.

Refractory or relapsing disease

Open label studies of adult patients treated with rituximab for relapsing ANCA-associated vasculitis have been promising,[30] and randomized, controlled, blinded prospective studies are currently underway. Other options for refractory or relapsing disease include intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), mycophenolate mofetil, infliximab, 15-deoxyspergualin, and antithymocyte globulin.

Systemic polyarteritis nodosa

Patients with severe disease should receive a combination of cyclophosphamide and glucocorticoids. However, a selected group of patients with mild polyarteritis nodosa may be successfully treated with glucocorticoids alone.

Cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa

Some patients respond to NSAIDs alone; however, most require treatment with prednisone. Steroid-sparing agents may be needed (eg, methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, colchicine, IVIG). Penicillin prophylaxis may prevent disease exacerbations in patients with evidence of triggering streptococcal infections.[4]

Large vessel vasculitis

A paucity of large controlled trials in the management of large-vessel vasculitis is noted, even in adult patients.

Induction therapy usually involves high-dose glucocorticoid (prednisone, 1 mg/kg/d). The initial high dose should be maintained for a month and then gradually tapered. Azathioprine or methotrexate have been used as adjuncts to steroid therapy in patients with Takayasu arteritis to improve disease control and to facilitate reduction of the steroid dose. Cyclophosphamide has been used in adults with Takayasu arteritis resistant to glucocorticoids. In addition, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibitors (eg, infliximab, etanercept) have been tried with encouraging results, including in a small study of 4 children.[31]

Primary CNS vasculitis

Initiate treatment with high-dose steroids and monthly IV cyclophosphamide for 6 months, followed by maintenance with mycophenolate mofetil or azathioprine for 18 months. Anti-thrombotic therapy (heparin followed by antiplatelet) may be added for large-vessel disease.[19] See Behcet Syndrome and Anti-GBM Antibody Disease for specific treatment of these conditions.

Thrombophlebitis/hypercoagulable state

Anticoagulation is indicated for any patient with a thrombotic episode and an underlying hypercoagulable state. This usually involves initial treatment with heparin with subsequent transition to warfarin.

Refer to Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome for details on treatment. Generally, anticoagulant prophylaxis is not indicated in the absence of a thrombotic event. No studies in the optimal management of pediatric patients with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome have been done. The adult literature suggests that patients with documented venous or arterial thrombotic events should be managed with warfarin.[32]

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Surgical Care

With involvement of the aorta and renal arteries, angioplasty and stenting of stenotic vessels has been used to improve flow (eg, in Takayasu arteritis). A significant proportion of vessels may develop restenosis, but good response to repeat procedure is noted.[38] In addition, reconstructive surgery with graft implantation may be required. Note that vascular procedures must be done during periods of inactive disease.

Patients with Wegener granulomatosis may develop subglottic stenosis; these lesions can be amenable to endoscopic management with local corticosteroid injection and/or mitomycin-C application.[40] Note that in Wegener granulomatosis, repeated procedures are often necessary, and some patients may require tracheostomy insertion.

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Consultations

  • Pediatric rheumatologist
  • Pediatric nephrologist (if renal involvement)
  • Pediatric cardiologist (if large vessel involvement)
  • Pediatric otolaryngologist (for upper respiratory tract involvement)
  • Pediatric hematologist (for thrombophilic disorders)
  • Pediatric neurologist (for CNS involvement)
  • Vascular surgeon or interventional radiologist, as indicated
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Diet

Therapy with prednisone requires adherence to low-salt and low-fat diet with extra calcium and vitamin D.

A low-salt diet is indicated if the patient is hypertensive.

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Activity

No limitations are indicated unless anticoagulants are used (then avoid contact sports).

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Nadia Jennifer Chiara Luca, MD  Fellow in Pediatric Rheumatology, University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine, Canada

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Susanne Maria Benseler, MD  Staff Physician, Research Director, Division of Rheumatology, Associate Professor, University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine; Associate Scientist, Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Canada

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Barry L Myones, MD  Associate Professor, Departments of Pediatrics and Immunology, Pediatric Rheumatology Section, Baylor College of Medicine; Director of Research, Pediatric Rheumatology Center, Texas Children's Hospital

Barry L Myones, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Rheumatology, American Heart Association, American Society for Microbiology, Clinical Immunology Society, and Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Herbert S Diamond, MD  Adjunct Professor of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; Chairman Emeritus, Department of Internal Medicine, Western Pennsylvania Hospital

Herbert S Diamond, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American College of Rheumatology, American Medical Association, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Merck Ownership interest Other; Smith Kline Ownership interest Other; Zimmer Ownership interest Other

Daniel Rauch, MD, FAAP  Director, Pediatric Hospitalist Program, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, New York University School of Medicine

Daniel Rauch, MD, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: Ambulatory Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, and Society of Hospital Medicine

Disclosure: Baxter Honoraria Consulting

Chief Editor

Lawrence K Jung, MD  Chief, Division of Pediatric Rheumatology, Children's National Medical Center

Lawrence K Jung, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Rheumatology, Clinical Immunology Society, and New York Academy of Sciences

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgments

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Christine Hom, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

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Preferred sites of vascular involvement by selected vasculitides.
Patient with Wegener granulomatosis and saddle-nose deformity.
Tender erythematous nodules in cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa (PAN).
Nodules on sole of foot in cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa (PAN).
Necrotic lesions of polyarteritis nodosa (PAN).
Chest radiography in Churg-Strauss syndrome (CSS) with pulmonary infiltrates.
CT of sinuses in a patient with Wegener granulomatosis (WG) showing erosion and loss of sinus walls.
CT chest in a patient with Churg-Strauss syndrome (CSS) showing multiple nodules.
Table 1. EUVAS disease categorization of ANCA-associated vasculitis
CategoryDefinition
LocalizedUpper and/or lower respiratory tract disease without any other systemic



involvement or constitutional symptoms



Early



systemic



Any, without organ-threatening or life-threatening disease
GeneralizedRenal or other organ-threatening disease, serum creatinine >500



μmol/L (5.6 mg/dL)



SevereRenal or other vital organ failure, serum creatinine >500 μmol/L (5.6 mg/dL)
RefractoryProgressive disease unresponsive to glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide
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