eMedicine Specialties > Dermatology > Diseases of the Adnexa

Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Author: Marina Jovanovic, MD, PhD, Chief of Dermatology Ward and Contact Dermatitis Investigative Unit, Clinic of Dermatoveneroleogic Diseases, Clinical Center, Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro; Associate Professor in Dermatology, Medical Faculty, University of Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia and Montenegro
Coauthor(s): George Kihiczak, MD, Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Dermatology, New Jersey Medical School and University Hospital; Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH, Professor and Head, Dermatology, Professor of Pathology, Pediatrics, Medicine, and Preventive Medicine and Community Health, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Aug 17, 2009

Introduction

Background

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a disorder of the terminal follicular epithelium in the apocrine gland–bearing skin. Hidradenitis suppurativa is characterized by comedolike follicular occlusion, chronic relapsing inflammation, mucopurulent discharge, and progressive scarring.

Pathophysiology

Hidradenitis suppurativa has traditionally been considered a disorder of the apocrine glands. Hidradenitis suppurativa was first described as a distinct entity in 1839, when Velpeau reported a patient with the superficial abscess formation in the axillary, mammary, and perianal regions.1 In 1854, Verneuil associated the suppurative process with the sweat glands, and the condition was given its current name. For many years, the condition was described as Verneuil disease, but it subsequently became known as hidradenitis suppurativa. Not having performed any histopathologic studies himself, Verneuil conceded that his conclusion was based purely on the characteristic distribution of the condition.2

In 1922, Schiefferdecker classified the sweat glands as eccrine and apocrine, and he subsequently localized hidradenitis suppurativa to the apocrine glands.3 In 1939, Brunsting provided a detailed description of the histologic features of hidradenitis suppurativa. He observed the primary cellular reaction in the lumen of the apocrine glands and in the neighboring periglandular connective tissue. Detailing the clinical features of the disease, Brunsting highlighted its frequent association with acne. He noted that hidradenitis suppurativa, dissecting cellulitis of the scalp and the neck, and acne conglobata commonly occur in the same patient. He thought that the central pathogenetic event in all 3 conditions was a tendency for follicular hyperkeratinization with secondary bacterial infection.4

In 1956, Pillsbury et al combined acne conglobata, hidradenitis suppurativa, and dissecting cellulitis under the term follicular occlusion triad.5 The only flaw in their concept was the focus on apocrine sweat gland involvement. In 1975, Plewig and Kligman added pilonidal sinus as another component to the ensemble, and they introduced the term acne tetrad.6 Plewig and Kligman pointed out that hidradenitis suppurativa is a misnomer because of the lack of apocrine gland involvement, but they did not present a detailed explanation. In 1989, Plewig and Steger suggested the term acne inversa as an inclusive and accurate name for what was previously called the follicular occlusion triad, or follicular occlusion tetrad.7 Eventually, hidradenitis suppurativa was accepted as an acneiform disorder that begins with follicular occlusion rather than an infection of the sweat glands.8,9,10

Hidradenitis suppurativa is actually a defect of the follicular epithelium; therefore, all outdated synonyms for this disease, including hidradenitis suppurativa, which we now call acne inversa, should be excluded from current usage. The term acne inversa links the pathogenesis to acne and reflects the fact that it is an expression of follicular occlusion in localizations inverse to acne vulgaris.11

Frequency

United States

In the United States, the prevalence of hidradenitis suppurativa appears to be 1-2% in the general population.

International

The prevalence of hidradenitis suppurativa appears to be 1% of the general population10,12 ; it was 4% in a group of young adults who were treated at a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases.12 A 2008 study showed that the prevalence among persons aged 55 years and older was significantly lower than in younger age groups (0.5% vs 1.4%).13

Hidradenitis suppurativa is probably more common than once thought, but the diagnosis is frequently ignored or missed. Hidradenitis suppurativa has a worldwide distribution, although hot, humid environments tend to support its development.

Mortality/Morbidity

The death rate is similar to that in the general adult population.

Although rare complications of the disease are described, little is known about the typical effects of hidradenitis suppurativa. Hidradenitis suppurativa is a chronic disabling disorder that relentlessly progresses and leads to keloids, contractures, and immobility; patients can become outcasts or at least have difficulty in making social contact.

  • In the assessment of socioeconomic effects, Jemec et al noted that the most common problem in both sexes was soreness and that the average patient lost 2.7 days of work per year.14 In comparison, in Denmark, the average number of workdays lost for all reasons was 7.5 days per year per employed person, whereas patients with eczema used 4 weeks of sick leave per year because of their disease. Although hidradenitis suppurativa entails less morbidity than perhaps hand eczema, with regard to its prevalence, it significantly contributes to the average number of workdays lost (Danish National Statistical Office, Copenhagen, Denmark, Jemec GB, written communication, 1996).14
  • Jemec et al also found sex differences in morbidity. Women lost significantly more days of work (mean, 2.9 d) than men (mean, 1.7 d); this finding suggests that women have either a more fulminant course or that other contributory factors remain unrecognized. On the other hand, male patients experienced less delay in seeking care from a specialist or hospital; this finding could also suggest a more fulminant course or the presence of confounding factors.14
  • The general self-reported level of health, which is well correlated with more objective parameters of morbidity, is significantly worse among hidradenitis suppurativa patients than healthy control subjects.14
  • The mean Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) score for hidradenitis suppurativa is higher than for previously studied skin diseases and is correlated with disease intensity as expressed by lesions per month. This suggests that the DLQI may be a relevant outcome measure in future therapeutic trials in hidradenitis suppurativa.15

Race

Although many authors report no racial predilection, an increased incidence is observed in blacks, possibly because blacks have a greater density of apocrine glands compared with whites.16

Sex

Although hidradenitis suppurativa is widely considered to occur more frequently in females than in males, with a ratio as high as 2-5:1,14,15 reports on sex prevalence are controversial.15,17,18

Active genitofemoral lesions occur significantly more often in females, whereas perianal involvement tends to be more common in males. No sex difference is seen in the axillary lesions. Comedones have been suggested as precursor lesions for hidradenitis suppurativa, and they appear to be equally distributed in both sexes and sites.19

Age

The onset of hidradenitis suppurativa peaks in individuals aged 11-50 years,20 with an average patient age of 23 years.15 In less than 2% of patients, the disease appears before age 11 years.21 In extremely rare cases, hidradenitis suppurativa occurs before puberty22,23 or after menopause.24

Clinical

History

Hidradenitis suppurativa usually occurs in otherwise healthy individuals, and, rarely, it can begin before puberty. The disease onset is insidious, with early symptoms of pruritus, erythema, and local hyperhidrosis. Later, the lesions become painful. Arthropathy associated with hidradenitis suppurativa may present with variable clinical features, ranging from asymmetric pauciarticular arthritis to a symmetric polyarthritis and/or polyarthralgia syndrome.25,26

Physical

The diagnosis is primarily clinical, and biopsy is rarely required, especially in well-developed lesions.20 The consensus approach has deemed that 3 key elements are required to diagnose hidradenitis suppurativa: typical lesions, characteristic distribution, and recurrence.

Based on 3 premises, a set of typical lesions, called primary lesions, was compiled, as follows:

  • Painful and/or tender erythematous papules smaller than 1 cm in diameter
  • Painful and/or tender erythematous nodules larger than 1 cm in diameter
  • Painful or tender abscesses and inflamed discharging papules or nodules
  • Dermal contractures and ropelike elevation of the skin
  • Double-ended comedones

The characteristic sites were chosen in accordance with the 2 areas most frequently affected by hidradenitis suppurativa: the axillae and the groin. These areas are defined by anatomical borders and are called designated sites. Hidradenitis suppurativa is diagnosed if the patient has 1 of the following:

  • Active disease with 1 or more primary lesion in a designated site, plus a history of 3 or more discharging or painful lumps (not specified) in designated sites since age 10 years
  • Inactive disease with a history of 5 or more discharging or painful lumps (unspecified) in designated sites since age 10 years, in the absence of current primary lesions15,27

Others have based the diagnosis on a series of questions, as follows28 :

  • Is there more than a single inflamed lesion?
  • Is the course chronic, with new and recurrent lesions?
  • Are the lesions bilateral?
  • Are the lesions located primarily in the milk line?

Hidradenitis suppurativa has a predilection for the intertriginous regions. The axillary and inguinoperineal regions are most commonly affected (see Media Files 1-2).Other zones that harbor terminal hair follicles and apocrine sweat glands are occasionally affected. These zones include the areola of the breast, the submammary fold, the periumbilical region, the scalp, the zygomatic and malar areas of the face, the nape of the neck, the external auditory meatus, and the shoulders.

Vulvar hidradenitis suppurativa.

Vulvar hidradenitis suppurativa.

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Vulvar hidradenitis suppurativa.

Vulvar hidradenitis suppurativa.



Vulvar and inguinal indurations.

Vulvar and inguinal indurations.

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Vulvar and inguinal indurations.

Vulvar and inguinal indurations.


The extent and the severity of the disorder vary widely. Some patients have relatively mild forms of the disease that involve only one region.16 In many patients, more than one major site is involved. One or both axillae can be affected. In addition, the inguinal region can be involved, often with spread to the scrotum, the labia, the mons pubis, the mammary or perianal region, and the buttocks.

A firm pea-size nodule appears and may spontaneously rupture, yielding a purulent discharge. The lesion then heals with fibrosis and eventual recurrence in an adjacent area. The progression from noninflamed nodules to painful, round, deep-seated lesions and subsequent scarring is highly diagnostic. The nodules tend to coalesce, and they may become infected, resulting in acute abscesses. These abscesses may temporarily resolve, or, alternatively, they may progress to multiple abscesses with persistent pain, fistula formation, and scarring. Infected ruptured apocrine glands coalesce, creating subcutaneous abscesses with discharge through multiple openings.

The inflamed nodules progress when spontaneously draining dermal sinus tracts appear. Draining sinuses represent a variant of persistent nodular hidradenitis suppurativa characterized by periodic discharge of pus or blood. If untreated, the draining sinuses persist for a long time, even years. They may seem to intermittently resolve, only to start draining again (see Media Files 3-4). A draining sinus can be easily identified because of its linear or angular shape, its history of being present for a prolonged period, and its variable response to systemic isotretinoin.29 Over time, multiple abscesses and sinus tracts form a subcutaneous honeycomb. Occasionally, the involvement extends into the underlying fascia and muscles. Fibrosis, hypertrophic scarring, and induration ultimately develop.

Sinus tract.

Sinus tract.

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Sinus tract.

Sinus tract.



Draining sinus tract.

Draining sinus tract.

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Draining sinus tract.

Draining sinus tract.


Multiple open comedones and so-called bridged comedones are the hallmark finding of hidradenitis suppurativa; they frequently progress to multiple abscesses and sinus tract formations. When 2 distant cutaneous orifices are interconnected through a subcutaneous fistula, they form bridging lesions. Adenopathy is rarely associated. With advanced disease, the destruction of most glands causes the apocrine glands to decrease in number or disappear. In the axillary region, 5- to 30-cm–long confluent infiltrations develop. These infiltrating lesions are firm and tend to merge at many points. As the disease becomes chronic, scars and contractures as large as a finger develop with persistent erythema. The patient’s mobility is restricted, and the patient may not be able to fully raise his or her upper arm above the horizontal plane.

Inguinal-anogenital infiltration involves brown-red lesions with pus, blood, and a foul-smelling secretion that emerges from the numerous fistular openings. In the upper anal fold, terminal hairs emerge from thickened scars. Perianal hidradenitis suppurativa may cause pain, swelling, purulent discharge, bleeding, and fistulas. Progressive destruction of the normal skin architecture occurs; the malodorous discharge may be thin and serous or frankly purulent.

The signs of perianal hidradenitis suppurativa may be clinically identical to the cutaneous manifestations of Crohn disease. Crohn disease may be complicated by a variety of skin manifestations, and hidradenitis suppurativa has been reported to precede or complicate Crohn disease.16,30,31 In examining patients with perianal hidradenitis suppurativa, Church et al noted that Crohn disease coexisted with perianal hidradenitis suppurativa in 39% of patients.32 Local swelling and inflammation associated with Crohn disease may precipitate hidradenitis suppurativa in patients already prone to it. However, the coexistence of Crohn disease and hidradenitis suppurativa does not explain the frequent presence of axillary, groin, and buttock involvement, which may imply a constitutional or genetic predisposition to hidradenitis suppurativa in patients with rectal Crohn disease.16

The coexistence of the 2 conditions may have implications in the treatment of perianal sepsis in such patients. Each condition can mask the other. Hidradenitis suppurativa may adversely affect the clinical course of patients with Crohn disease. Furthermore, patients with both conditions are more prone to persistent sepsis and frequently require proctocolectomy and fecal diversion procedures.16  

In patients with the chronic lesions due to so-called granulomatous hidradenitis suppurativa, as well as in 60% of patients with Crohn disease, the presence of noncaseating epithelioid-type granulomas suggests that hidradenitis suppurativa and Crohn disease are chronic inflammatory conditions. Epithelioid granulomas occur in patients with a constitutive tendency to form granulomas as a part of an immunologic abnormality.30

Whether the association between hidradenitis suppurativa and Crohn disease is more than a coincidence is unclear; however, the small proportion of patients with hidradenitis suppurativa and epithelioid granulomatous inflammation may represent a group that is susceptible to systemic granulomatous disease, including Crohn disease.30,31

The association of hidradenitis suppurativa with several disorders in which poral occlusion is prominent supports the theory of a follicular origin of hidradenitis suppurativa.33 Such disorders include Fox-Fordyce disease, acanthosis nigricans,22  pityriasis rubra pilaris (PRP),34  steatocystoma multiplex, and Dowling-Degos disease.35

HIV-associated pityriasis rubra pilaris, or pityriasis rubra pilaris type VI, is a new entity reported in patients with HIV infection. HIV-associated pityriasis rubra pilaris is characterized by the cutaneous lesions of pityriasis rubra pilaris and a variable association with the lesions of acne conglobata, hidradenitis suppurativa, and lichen spinulosus.34 This disease can be designated by the broader term, HIV-associated follicular syndrome. Although the pathogenesis of pityriasis rubra pilaris type VI is unknown, follicular inflammation secondary to infection of the hair follicle bulge area by HIV has been suggested.25

Arthritis is a well-recognized, albeit uncommon, comorbidity of several chronic cutaneous inflammatory conditions that involve severe acne. Included in this group of conditions is the arthropathy associated with hidradenitis suppurativa, acne conglobata, perifolliculitis abscedens, and suffodiens capitis.25,26 Arthritis associated with acne fulminans, seronegative spondyloarthropathies of psoriatic arthritis, and reactive arthritis are well-defined clinical entities. However, arthritis associated with hidradenitis suppurativa; acne conglobata; perifolliculitis abscedens; suffodiens capitis; and synovitis, acne, palmoplantar pustulosis, hyperostosis, and osteitis (SAPHO) syndrome are less well defined; these conditions may be part of the spectrum of human leukocyte antigen B27(HLA-B27)–negative spondyloarthropathies.36

The pathogenesis of the arthritis remains unknown, but it may include an inappropriate response to bacterial antigens involved in acne, or it may be some other autoimmune response.37 Arthropathy associated with hidradenitis suppurativa may manifest variable clinical features, ranging from an asymmetric pauciarticular arthritis to a symmetric polyarthritis and/or polyarthralgia syndrome. Arthropathy typically involves the large joints in the upper or lower extremities, particularly the knee joints. The axial skeleton may also be involved. In many instances, the arthropathy worsens during flares of hidradenitis suppurativa, and, conversely, it improves after hidradenitis suppurativa resolves.36

The concept of SAPHO syndrome includes 4 subgroups of osteoarticular disorders: (1) rheumatologic manifestations associated with acne conglobata or acne fulminans or inversa hidradenitis suppurativa, (2) pustulosis palmoplantaris, (3) sternocostoclavicular hyperostosis, and (4) chronic multifocal recurrent osteomyelitis. SAPHO syndrome may encompass cases described as arthropathy associated with hidradenitis suppurativa and acne conglobata. However, aseptic osteitis with hyperostosis, particularly of the thoracic joints, is a hallmark of SAPHO syndrome, and it may represent a feature that distinguishes SAPHO syndrome from the arthropathy of hidradenitis suppurativa and acne conglobata.26,38

Some reports raised the question of whether mammillary fistula or Zuska disease might be a manifestation of acne inversa.39

Pyoderma gangrenosum has been rarely associated with hidradenitis suppurativa, and this developed only after hidradenitis suppurativa had been present for at least 2 decades, just as in the authors; patient (see Media Files 1-15). Only 15 cases of coexisting pyoderma gangrenosum and hidradenitis suppurativa were found in the English-language literature. More studies are required to support impaired neutrophil function as a common etiological pathway.40

Causes

The exact etiology of hidradenitis suppurativa remains obscure. All proposed etiologic factors, such as occlusion and bacterial infection, genetics, host defense defects, hormones, cigarette smoking, and irritants, are likely to be only secondary factors. The primary events in the hair follicles of the affected areas remain unidentified.41 Additionally, thickened skin may play a role in the pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa (see Imaging Studies).

  • The classic view of hidradenitis suppurativa is that it is an occlusive and pyogenic disease of the apocrine glands, a hypothesis that seemed to be confirmed with its experimental reproduction by Shelley and Cahn in 1955.42 After manually depilating the skin and applying atropine-impregnated tape, they induced initial keratinous obstruction, dilatation, and inflammation of the apocrine duct, which occurred in only 25% of the experimental lesions. No progression to the characteristically chronic condition of hidradenitis suppurativa occurred.42
    • In more recent studies, hidradenitis suppurativa is identified as a disorder of follicular occlusion rather than apocrine occlusion.8,9,10 Yu and Cook found inflammatory changes involving the apocrine glands in only one third of cases; these occurred only when the inflammation extensively involved the hair follicles and eccrine glands.8 Attanoos et al reported follicular occlusion in all specimens, when compared with controls, regardless of the disease duration. The inflammation of the apocrine glands did not occur in the absence of an adjacent folliculitis; thus, apocrine gland involvement was incidental or secondary.9 Therefore, hidradenitis suppurativa is best considered a disorder of the terminal follicular epithelium in the apocrine gland–bearing skin.20
    • The earliest change is plugging, which occurs in follicular hyperkeratosis with infundibulofolliculitis. This obstructs the apocrine gland ducts and perifolliculitis around the ducts. Whether this initial inflammatory change is due to a bacterial infection or factors similar to those involved in acne formation is not known.
    • In the later stages of hidradenitis suppurativa, bacterial infection seems to be a risk factor for the destructive scarring and extension of hidradenitis suppurativa lesions, and, once the sinuses have formed, the risk of secondary infection is obvious.43
    • Among the most commonly isolated bacteria are coagulase-negative staphylococci.43 Sweat ducts can become occluded with periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)–positive extracellular polysaccharide substance, the cause of which was recently suggested to be Staphylococcus epidermidis.44 Such strains induced miliaria under experimental conditions. A similar mechanism may be important in the pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa.43
    • The earliest inflammatory event in hidradenitis suppurativa is the rupture of the follicular epithelium. The cause of the rupture is not known, although friction in intertriginous locations may be a contributing factor. The rupture is followed by the spillage of foreign-body material into the dermis, which initiates an inflammatory response, resulting in foreign-body granuloma formation. Epithelial strands form draining sinuses in this inflammatory tissue. Colonization with bacteria, usually coagulase-negative staphylococci, can aggravate the chronic inflammation.41,43
  • Regarding the current controversies nonfollicular-based theories on what causes hidradenitis suppurativa, some authors suggest the following45 :
    • The apocrine glands may play a role in hidradenitis suppurativa because an abnormal secretion (either the excess or absence) could be influencing an effect on the acroinfundibulum, distal from the gland itself.
    • The sinus tract formation is an early feature of hidradenitis suppurativa, arising not from hair follicles but rather from invaginations of epidermis as cysts
    • Resident bacteria, such as coagulase-negative staphylococci may cause adherence of the epidermis in the closed serrated tissue of intertriginous areas, leading to the formation of cysts and hidradenitis suppurativa lesions
  • Although the inciting influences for the follicular occlusion and sinus tract formation have not been fully elucidated, genetic factors may play a role.
  • More than 15 years ago, the existence of a familial form of hidradenitis suppurativa with autosomal dominant inheritance was proposed. The disease frequency among first-degree relatives of patients with familial hidradenitis suppurativa was 34%.46 However, this finding does not seem to be widely accepted; why this finding is not accepted is unclear because it had been recognized that a number of patients with hidradenitis suppurativa have affected family members.
  • Findings from one review of the original study group supported the previous results, though conclusive proof still does not exist.
  • A search for the molecular genetic abnormality is now necessary.27 Mutation within the connexin 26 gene is reported in association with keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness syndrome and the severe follicular occlusion triad.47 A study of a large 4-generation Chinese family with hidradenitis suppurativa indicates a locus for the disease on band 1q21.1-1q25.3.48
    • The notion that specific HLA antigens might be at the center of a genetic susceptibility to hidradenitis suppurativa is not supported and remains questionable.49
    • Host-defense defects in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa are suspected but not proven.50
    • Hyperreactive neutrophils have been proposed to be of pathophysiologic importance in many chronic inflammatory diseases involving the destruction of the surrounding tissue by the simultaneous release of reactive oxygen species and active proteases.
    • The release of oxygen radicals from peripheral neutrophils that are activated in vitro was studied in patients with inactive hidradenitis suppurativa. The generation of free oxygen radicals after the stimulation of peripheral neutrophils with protein kinase C (PKC) activator and phorbolmyristate acetate (PMA) was significantly higher in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa than in healthy control subjects.
    • The higher sensitivity of PKC to PMA in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa is unlikely to have been induced by the disease and its local lesions because the systemic effects were minor in the quiescent state. Therefore, a defect in the function of the neutrophils might be of pathogenic importance in hidradenitis suppurativa.50
    • A reduction in the percentage of natural killer cells over time and a lower response of monocytes to triggering by bacterial components were found in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa. Further study is needed to elucidate if these changes are related to an autoimmune mechanism in the pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa.51
    • Toll-like receptors play an integral role in the innate immune response to bacteria. A highly increased expression of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) by CD68+ macrophages and CD209+ dendritic cells in acne inverse skin lesions was found.52
  • Apocrine sweat glands are stimulated by androgen and suppressed by estrogen. Evidence for the hormonal effects in hidradenitis suppurativa exists; however, the exact roles of androgens in the pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa remain controversial, and they may prove to be secondary.12,20,53,54,55
    • Many women describe a worsening of the condition with menses, whereas others report alleviation with pregnancy, followed by postmenstrual flaring. These observations suggest that the low level of estrogen predisposes women to disease activity. Premenstrual flares have been shown to be unrelated to menstrual disturbances. These flares are not predictive of the overall course, and the effect of pregnancy is not constant.24 The female preponderance may also be explained by other specific factors such as the estrogenic influence on inflammation.19
    • The following evidence supports the association of androgens and hidradenitis suppurativa: the disease is rarely present until after puberty begins,21 hidradenitis suppurativa is not present in eunuchs or eunuchoids, and hidradenitis suppurativa may occur as the presenting feature of premature adrenarche.56 Additionally, antiandrogen therapy is of some benefit in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa.57
    • The relationship between hidradenitis suppurativa and hyperandrogenism is largely based on the finding that the free androgen index is increased due to a low level of sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG is now believed to be regulated by factors that influence body weight.24
    • Hirsutism and obesity are common findings among women with hidradenitis suppurativa.58
      • Obesity can alter sex hormone metabolism, leading to an androgen-excess state. Excessive androgens can enhance keratin production and coarsening of the hair shaft, promoting follicular occlusion.9
      • Although hirsutism, obesity, and acne among women with hidradenitis suppurativa are more common than expected,24 the incidences are not significantly different from those in the general population.53,54,59 However, neither evidence for biochemical hyperandrogenism nor suppression of SHBG has been shown in women with hidradenitis suppurativa when compared with age-, body weight-, and hirsuties-matched controls.24
      • In one study, obesity and oral contraceptive use were not common or pronounced among patients; this observation suggested that, while these parameters may influence preexisting disease, they are unlikely to be pathogenically important.14
      • In obesity, increased skin-to-skin contact may promote follicular hyperkeratosis.9
    • An abnormal end-organ response to normal circulating levels of androgens is proposed.57 The normal apocrine gland contains 5-alpha reductase, which converts testosterone to the potent androgen dihydrotestosterone. Finasteride is a competitive inhibitor of the 5-alpha reductase type II isoenzyme. The benefits of finasteride in some patients with calcitrant and persistent forms of hidradenitis suppurativa,57 raised the issue of whether 5-alpha reductase type I or type II is expressed in this disease and whether this expression applies to the apocrine gland, sebaceous gland, or both. On the other hand, sebum excretion is not an important factor in the development of hidradenitis suppurativa.59 Thus, hormonal influence remains controversial.
  • Cigarette smoking may be among the major triggering factors in hidradenitis suppurativa, and its cessation should be encouraged, although whether cessation improves the course of disease is unknown.12,13 It remains unclear precisely what pathogenetic mechanism would be responsible for the effect of smoking in the manifestation of acne inversa, but an altered chemotaxis of polymorphic neutrophils could play a part.60
  • Chemical irritants (eg, deodorants) and mechanical irritation (eg, depilation, shaving) have been considered risk factors. However, in one study, no significant difference was found in patients who were exposed to these factors compared with age-matched control subjects.33 Factors associated with disease activity, such as heat, sweating, stress, and menstruation in females, are the most commonly cited factors that exacerbate the disease. In one study, 32% of responders observed a deterioration in their disease during the summer.15
  • Hidradenitis suppurativa is rarely an adverse effect of drug use, but oral contraceptives and lithium have been associated with hidradenitis suppurativa development.19
  • Lung and buccal cancer are more common among hidradenitis suppurativa patients than in the general population as would be expected with increased tobacco smoking smokeless tobacco use.19
  • Hidradenitis suppurativa may rarely be complicated by carcinoma.61

More on Hidradenitis Suppurativa

Overview: Hidradenitis Suppurativa
Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Hidradenitis Suppurativa
Treatment & Medication: Hidradenitis Suppurativa
Follow-up: Hidradenitis Suppurativa
Multimedia: Hidradenitis Suppurativa
References
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References

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  2. Verneuil A. Etudes sur les tumeurs de la peau et quelques maladies des glandes sudoripores. Arch Gen Med. 1854;4:693-705.

  3. Schiefferdecker B. Die Hautdrusen des Menschen und der Saugetierre ihre Histologishe und rassenanatomische Bedeutung Sowie die Muscularis Sexualis. Stuttgart. 1922.

  4. Brunsting HA. Hidradenitis suppurativa: abscess of the apocrine sweat glands. Arch fur Dermatol und Syph (Berlin). 1939;39:108-20.

  5. Pillsbury DM, Shelley WB, Kligman AM. Bacterial infections of the skin. In: Dermatology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co; 1956:482-9.

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  9. Attanoos RL, Appleton MA, Douglas-Jones AG. The pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa: a closer look at apocrine and apoeccrine glands. Br J Dermatol. Aug 1995;133(2):254-8. [Medline].

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  13. Revuz JE, Canoui-Poitrine F, Wolkenstein P, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with hidradenitis suppurativa: results from two case-control studies. J Am Acad Dermatol. Oct 2008;59(4):596-601. [Medline].

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Further Reading

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Keywords

hidradenitis suppurativa, HS, acne inversa, acne triad, acne tetrad, hidradenitis axillaris, apocrinitis, intertriginous acne, pyoderma fistulans sinifica, Verneuil's disease, Verneuil disease, dissecting cellulitis of scalp and neck, acne conglobata, follicular occlusion triad, follicular occlusion tetrad, pilonidal sinus, acneiform disorder, apocrine occlusion

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Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Marina Jovanovic, MD, PhD, Chief of Dermatology Ward and Contact Dermatitis Investigative Unit, Clinic of Dermatoveneroleogic Diseases, Clinical Center, Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro; Associate Professor in Dermatology, Medical Faculty, University of Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia and Montenegro
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

George Kihiczak, MD, Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Dermatology, New Jersey Medical School and University Hospital
George Kihiczak, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, and Medical Society of New Jersey
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH, Professor and Head, Dermatology, Professor of Pathology, Pediatrics, Medicine, and Preventive Medicine and Community Health, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School
Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, American College of Physicians, and Sigma Xi
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Daniel Mark Siegel, MD, MS, Director, Procedural Dermatology Fellowship Program, Clinical Professor of Dermatology, Department of Dermatology, State University of New York Downstate
Daniel Mark Siegel, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, American College of Mohs Micrographic Surgery and Cutaneous Oncology, American College of Physician Executives, American Society for Dermatologic Surgery, American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery, American Society for MOHS Surgery, and International Society for Dermatologic Surgery
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

David F Butler, MD, Professor of Dermatology, Texas A&M University College of Medicine; Chair, Department of Dermatology, Director, Dermatology Residency Training Program, Scott and White Clinic, Northside Clinic
David F Butler, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, American Society for Dermatologic Surgery, American Society for MOHS Surgery, Association of Military Dermatologists, and Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Managing Editor

Jeffrey J Miller, MD, Associate Professor of Dermatology, Penn State University College of Medicine; Staff Dermatologist, Penn State Milton S Hershey Medical Center
Jeffrey J Miller, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, Association of Professors of Dermatology, North American Hair Research Society, and Society for Investigative Dermatology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Catherine Quirk, MD, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Dermatology, Brown University
Catherine Quirk, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha and American Academy of Dermatology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Dirk M Elston, MD, Director, Department of Dermatology, Geisinger Medical Center
Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
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