Calciphylaxis 

  • Author: Julia R Nunley, MD; Chief Editor: Dirk M Elston, MD   more...
 
Updated: Jun 24, 2011
 

Background

Calciphylaxis is a poorly understood and highly morbid syndrome of vascular calcification and skin necrosis. Bryant and White first reported it in association with uremia in 1898. However, the significance of this relationship became uncertain when vascular calcification was subsequently shown to be prevalent in uremia, yet the syndrome of vascular calcification with cutaneous necrosis remained rare.

In 1962, Selye[1] constructed an experimental model and was able to precipitate systemic calcification, somewhat analogous to this syndrome, in nephrectomized rats. He was the first to coin the term calciphylaxis to characterize this enigma. Over the years, many other names have been suggested to characterize the pathogenic process, which has remained elusive. Interestingly, the clinical importance of this syndrome was not recognized until a 1976 report by Gipstein et al.[2] Since then, a multitude of case reports of calciphylaxis have documented data outlining its morbidity and therapeutic dilemmas, as well as a quest to better understand its etiology and pathogenesis. Unfortunately, it remains a conundrum.

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Pathophysiology

The pathogenesis of calciphylaxis remains obscure and is likely the result of a multiplicity of comorbid factors or events. Disorders that are most often implicated in the pathogenesis of calciphylaxis include chronic renal failure, obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, an elevated calcium-phosphate product, and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Yet, although these abnormalities are extremely common in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), calciphylaxis is relatively rare.

Using a rat model, Selye[1] demonstrated that a series of events might be necessary for the formation of calciphylaxis. He defined calciphylaxis as a condition of hypersensitivity induced by a set of "sensitizing" agents, in which calcinosis occurred only in those subsequently subjected to a group of "challengers" and only after a critical lag time. Experimental sensitizing events and agents included nephrectomy and exposure to parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D. Substances used as challengers included egg albumin and metallic salts. Calciphylaxis was the end result.[3]

Although extrapolation of animal data to humans is conjectural, it seems to be true that serial events, most consistently involving renal failure–induced abnormalities in calcium homeostasis, are required to occur over time for calciphylaxis to develop. The cause of calciphylaxis has been elusive, most likely because it is the common endpoint of a heterogeneous group of disorders.

Molecular and cytochemical factors have been identified as crucial in bone metabolism. The receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB (RANK), RANK ligand, and osteoprotegerin appear to regulate skeletal and extraskeletal mineralization.[4, 5] Uremia-induced defects in this system may predispose to calciphylaxis.[6] Corticosteroids, aluminum, hyperparathyroidism, liver disease, warfarin therapy, and a variety of inflammatory processes all can alter this balance and promote vascular calcification.[7, 8] Chronic inflammatory conditions may predispose to calciphylaxis by reducing serum levels of fetuin-A, an important inhibitor of calcification produced in the liver.[9, 10, 11]

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Epidemiology

Frequency

International

Calciphylaxis is an uncommon condition that affects 1-4% of the population with ESRD.[12, 13] A concern exists that the incidence has increased during the last decade because of a number of possible factors, including more widespread use of parenteral vitamin D and iron dextran. No good data are available regarding the incidence of calciphylaxis in the general population without ESRD, but it is probably exceedingly rare.

Mortality/Morbidity

The mortality rate of calciphylaxis is reported to be as high as 60-80%.[7] The leading cause of death is sepsis from infected, necrotic skin lesions, although death due to internal organ failure has been reported. The mortality rate is higher in patients with proximal disease than in those with only distal or acral disease. A 2-fold increase in mortality is seen in those with ulcerative disease. The overall 1- and 5-year survival rates have recently been reported to be 45% and 35%, respectively.

Race

Although the disease may affect persons of any race, it appears to be more prevalent in whites.

Sex

Females are affected more often than males, with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 3:1. Females also appear to be more commonly affected with nonuremic calciphylaxis.

Age

Calciphylaxis has been reported in individuals ranging in age from 6 months to 83 years. From a large series of patients, a mean patient age of 48 years (±16 y) has been calculated. Individuals seemingly more predisposed are younger patients who have had a longer duration of renal replacement therapy.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Julia R Nunley, MD  Professor, Program Director, Dermatology Residency, Department of Dermatology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center

Julia R Nunley, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American College of Physicians, American Society of Nephrology, International Society of Nephrology, Medical Dermatology Society, Medical Society of Virginia, National Kidney Foundation, Phi Beta Kappa, and Women's Dermatologic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Smeena Khan, MD  Private Practice, Adult and Pediatric Dermatology Associates

Smeena Khan, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha and American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Richard P Vinson, MD  Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Dermatology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Paul L Foster School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Mountain View Dermatology, PA

Richard P Vinson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, Association of Military Dermatologists, Texas Dermatological Society, and Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jeffrey Meffert, MD  Assistant Clinical Professor of Dermatology, University of Texas School of Medicine at San Antonio

Jeffrey Meffert, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, Association of Military Dermatologists, and Texas Dermatological Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Joel M Gelfand, MD, MSCE  Medical Director, Clinical Studies Unit, Assistant Professor, Department of Dermatology, Associate Scholar, Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Pennsylvania

Joel M Gelfand, MD, MSCE is a member of the following medical societies: Society for Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: AMGEN Consulting fee Consulting; AMGEN Grant/research funds Investigator; Genentech Grant/research funds investigator; Centocor Consulting fee Consulting; Abbott Grant/research funds investigator; Abbott Consulting fee Consulting; Novartis investigator; Pfizer Grant/research funds investigator; Celgene Consulting fee DMC Chair; NIAMS and NHLBI Grant/research funds investigator

Chief Editor

Dirk M Elston, MD  Director, Department of Dermatology, Geisinger Medical Center

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

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Several lesions of calciphylaxis that occurred on the lower extremity of a patient undergoing dialysis. These lesions developed in areas of livedo reticularis and followed the path of the vasculature.
An isolated lesion of calciphylaxis manifesting as an enlarging necrotic plaque on the lower extremity of a patient undergoing dialysis. The stellate purpuric morphology can be appreciated surrounding the area of necrosis.
Calciphylaxis may manifest as rapidly progressive, diffuse and extensive, cutaneous necrosis, as is seen in this patient with chronic renal failure. Bullae may also be seen as a rare manifestation of calciphylaxis.
Radiologic findings of a hand in a patient with calciphylaxis. Extensive calcification of the radial and ulnar arteries is readily visible.
Histologically, calcification of the blood vessels, as well as the subcutis, can be seen in calciphylaxis.
Demonstrated here is the characteristic circumferential medial calcific deposit in an arteriole with subintimal edema. Histologic images courtesy of Steve A. McClain, MD, Department of Dermatology SUNY-Stony Brook.
This image shows circumferential medial calcific deposits obliterating the external elastica of an arteriole. Histologic images courtesy of Steve A. McClain, MD, Department of Dermatology SUNY-Stony Brook.
 
 
 
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