Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus Follow-up

  • Author: Jeffrey Meffert, MD; Chief Editor: Dirk M Elston, MD   more...
 
Updated: Mar 21, 2011
 

Further Inpatient Care

Inpatient care generally is not required unless for surgery for malignancy or to relieve urinary obstruction is planned.

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Further Outpatient Care

If potent topical steroids are to be used, regular follow-up is required to monitor for the occurrence of steroid atrophy. Monitor female lichen sclerosus patients for any sign of secondary or associated genital malignancy. Extragenital cases require no specific follow-up.

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Transfer

A patient requiring surgical intervention (circumcision or cancer surgery) may require transfer to another specialist if the dermatologist or primary care physician is not competent in the procedure required.

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Complications

Following are male genital, female genital, and extragenital complications:

  • Male genital: Complications can include painful erections, urinary obstruction, an inability to retract the foreskin, and squamous cell carcinoma (rare).
  • Female genital: Complications include dyspareunia, urinary obstruction, secondary infection from chronic ulceration, secondary infection related to steroid use, and squamous cell carcinoma (rare, but not as rare as male cases). Some estimates are as high as 5% for the lifetime risk of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma in patients with lichen sclerosus.[24] The epidemiology of lichen sclerosus patients who develop squamous cell carcinoma shows that older age, longer duration of lichen sclerosus, and evidence of hyperplastic/early vulvar carcinoma in situ changes to be significant risk factors. A 2009 study linked coexistent chlamydia infection and lichen sclerosus with increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma, but other sexually transmitted illnesses, such as human papillomavirus infection, were not completely addressed.[25]
  • Extragenital: Complications include cosmetic concerns, but only in extensive cases.
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Prognosis

Prognosis is good for more acute genital cases, especially for those in pediatric age group that may resolve spontaneously. Prognosis for improvement is poor for extragenital cases and for chronic atrophic genital disease.

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Patient Education

Education relating to sexual dysfunction and dyspareunia may be required. Patients with genital lichen sclerosus should be educated on what changes (eg, ulceration) might indicate malignant transformation and mandate an immediate reevaluation.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Jeffrey Meffert, MD  Assistant Clinical Professor of Dermatology, University of Texas School of Medicine at San Antonio

Jeffrey Meffert, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, Association of Military Dermatologists, and Texas Dermatological Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Ponciano D Cruz Jr, MD  Vice-Chair, JB Shelmire Professor, Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center

Ponciano D Cruz Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: RCTS Consulting fee Independent contractor; Mary Kay Cosmetics Honoraria Consulting; Galderma Grant/research funds Principal Investigator

David F Butler, MD  Professor of Dermatology, Texas A&M University College of Medicine; Chair, Department of Dermatology, Director, Dermatology Residency Training Program, Scott and White Clinic, Northside Clinic

David F Butler, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, American Society for Dermatologic Surgery, American Society for MOHS Surgery, Association of Military Dermatologists, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Edward F Chan, MD  Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine

Edward F Chan, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Society of Dermatopathology, and Society for Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Catherine M Quirk, MD  Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania

Catherine M Quirk, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha and American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Dirk M Elston, MD  Director, Department of Dermatology, Geisinger Medical Center

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

  1. Chan I, Oyama N, Neill SM, Wojnarowska F, Black MM, McGrath JA. Characterization of IgG autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus. Clin Exp Dermatol. Sep 2004;29(5):499-504. [Medline].

  2. Regauer S, Liegl B, Reich O, Beham-Schmid C. Vasculitis in lichen sclerosus: an under recognized feature?. Histopathology. Sep 2004;45(3):237-44. [Medline].

  3. Kowalewski C, Kozlowska A, Chan I, et al. Three-dimensional imaging reveals major changes in skin microvasculature in lipoid proteinosis and lichen sclerosus. J Dermatol Sci. Jun 2005;38(3):215-24. [Medline].

  4. Li YZ, Wu Y, Zhang QH, Wang Y, Zhen JH, Li SL. Hypoxia-ischaemia is involved in the pathogenesis of vulvar lichen sclerosus. Clin Exp Dermatol. Dec 2009;34(8):e531-6. [Medline].

  5. Hunger RE, Bronnimann M, Kappeler A, Mueller C, Braathen LR, Yawalkar N. Detection of perforin and granzyme B mRNA expressing cells in lichen sclerosus. Exp Dermatol. May 2007;16(5):416-20. [Medline].

  6. Smith SD, Fischer G. Childhood onset vulvar lichen sclerosus does not resolve at puberty: a prospective case series. Pediatr Dermatol. Nov-Dec 2009;26(6):725-9. [Medline].

  7. Sherman V, McPherson T, Baldo M, Salim A, Gao XH, Wojnarowska F. The high rate of familial lichen sclerosus suggests a genetic contribution: an observational cohort study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. Feb 25 2010;[Medline].

  8. De Vito JR, Merogi AJ, Vo T, et al. Role of Borrelia burgdorferi in the pathogenesis of morphea/scleroderma and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus: a PCR study of thirty-five cases. J Cutan Pathol. Aug 1996;23(4):350-8. [Medline].

  9. Eisendle K, Grabner T, Kutzner H, Zelger B. Possible role of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato infection in lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol. May 2008;144(5):591-8. [Medline].

  10. Cooper SM, Ali I, Baldo M, Wojnarowska F. The association of lichen sclerosus and erosive lichen planus of the vulva with autoimmune disease: a case-control study. Arch Dermatol. Nov 2008;144(11):1432-5. [Medline].

  11. Zollinger T, Mertz KD, Schmid M, Schmitt A, Pfaltz M, Kempf W. Borrelia in granuloma annulare, morphea and lichen sclerosus: a PCR-based study and review of the literature. J Cutan Pathol. Dec 10 2009;[Medline].

  12. Bjekic M, Sipetic S, Marinkovic J. Risk factors for genital lichen sclerosus in men. Br J Dermatol. Feb 2011;164(2):325-9. [Medline].

  13. Gunthert AR, Faber M, Knappe G, Hellriegel S, Emons G. Early onset vulvar Lichen Sclerosus in premenopausal women and oral contraceptives. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. Mar 2008;137(1):56-60. [Medline].

  14. O'Mahony C, Yesudian PD, Stanley M. Imiquimod use in the genital area and development of lichen sclerosus and lichen planus. Int J STD AIDS. Mar 2010;21(3):219-21. [Medline].

  15. Prowse DM, Ktori EN, Chandrasekaran D, Prapa A, Baithun S. Human papillomavirus-associated increase in p16INK4A expression in penile lichen sclerosus and squamous cell carcinoma. Br J Dermatol. Feb 2008;158(2):261-5. [Medline].

  16. Stucker M, Grape J, Bechara FG, Hoffmann K, Altmeyer P. The outcome after cryosurgery and intralesional steroid injection in vulvar lichen sclerosus corresponds to preoperative histopathological findings. Dermatology. 2005;210(3):218-22. [Medline].

  17. Kreuter A, Gambichler T. Narrowband UV-B phototherapy for extragenital lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol. Sep 2007;143(9):1213. [Medline].

  18. Romero A, Hernandez-Nunez A, Cordoba-Guijarro S, Arias-Palomo D, Borbujo-Martinez J. Treatment of recalcitrant erosive vulvar lichen sclerosus with photodynamic therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol. Aug 2007;57(2 Suppl):S46-7. [Medline].

  19. Vermaat H, Smienk F, Rustemeyer T, Bruynzeel DP, Kirtschig G. Anogenital allergic contact dermatitis, the role of spices and flavour allergy. Contact Dermatitis. Oct 2008;59(4):233-7. [Medline].

  20. Fischer G, Rogers M. Treatment of childhood vulvar lichen sclerosus with potent topical corticosteroid. Pediatr Dermatol. May-Jun 1997;14(3):235-8. [Medline].

  21. Kreuter A, Tigges C, Gaifullina R, Kirschke J, Altmeyer P, Gambichler T. Pulsed high-dose corticosteroids combined with low-dose methotrexate treatment in patients with refractory generalized extragenital lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol. Nov 2009;145(11):1303-8. [Medline].

  22. Bornstein J, Heifetz S, Kellner Y, Stolar Z, Abramovici H. Clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% versus testosterone propionate 2% topical application for severe vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Jan 1998;178(1 Pt 1):80-4. [Medline].

  23. Lindhagen T. Topical clobetasol propionate compared with placebo in the treatment of unretractable foreskin. Eur J Surg. Dec 1996;162(12):969-72. [Medline].

  24. Jones RW, Sadler L, Grant S, Whineray J, Exeter M, Rowan D. Clinically identifying women with vulvar lichen sclerosus at increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma: a case-control study. J Reprod Med. Oct 2004;49(10):808-11. [Medline].

  25. Olejek A, Kozak-Darmas I, Kellas-Sleczka S, Jarek A, Wiczkowski A, Krol W, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women with lichen sclerosus vulvae and vulvar cancer. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2009;30(5):671-4. [Medline].

 
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Lichen sclerosus demonstrating classic hourglass or figure 8 vulvar and perianal distribution. Courtesy of Wilford Hall Medical Center slide files.
Extragenital lichen sclerosus demonstrating coalescing pitted white papules. Courtesy of Wilford Hall Medical Center slide files.
Typical lichen sclerosus histology demonstrating homogenized edematous papillary (upper) dermis and effaced epidermis.
More advanced vulvar lichen sclerosus; eroded areas need to be carefully examined and a biopsy sample should be taken to exclude coexistent squamous cell carcinoma. Courtesy of Wilford Hall Medical Center Dermatology slide files.
Male genital lichen sclerosus may present with a sclerotic ring at the edge of the prepuce or anywhere on the glans itself. Advanced disease at the urethral os may lead to urinary obstruction. Courtesy of Wilford Hall Medical Center Dermatology Slide files.
Late lichen sclerosus may show less edema in the upper dermis and more sclerosis throughout the dermis. Involvement of the lower dermis or fat may occur in lichen sclerosus/scleroderma overlap presentations.
 
 
 
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