Organic Solvents 

  • Author: Jonathan S Rutchik, MD, MPH; Chief Editor: Tarakad S Ramachandran, MBBS, FRCP(C), FACP   more...
 
Updated: Apr 4, 2012
 

Background

Organic solvents are a chemical class of compounds that are used routinely in commercial industries. They share a common structure (at least 1 carbon atom and 1 hydrogen atom), low molecular weight, lipophilicity, and volatility, and they exist in liquid form at room temperature. They may be grouped further into aliphatic-chain compounds, such as n -hexane, and as aromatic compounds with a 6-carbon ring, such as benzene or xylene. Aliphatics and aromatics may contain a substituted halogen element and may be referred to as halogenated hydrocarbons, such as perchloroethylene (PCE or PER), trichloroethylene (TCE), and carbon tetrachloride. Alcohols, ketones, glycols, esters, ethers, aldehydes, and pyridines are substitutions for a hydrogen group. Organic solvents are useful because they can dissolve oils, fats, resins, rubber, and plastics.

Organic solvents arose in the latter half of the 19th century from the coal-tar industry. Their application grew to be wide and diverse in both developed and developing countries. The introduction of chlorinated solvents in the 1920s led to reports of toxicity. Although solvents number in the thousands, only a few have been tested for neurotoxicity.

Workers in industries that use these agents may have occupational exposure, whereas other individuals may have environmental exposures if they live near industrial installations and/or have contact with contaminated water, soil, air, or food. Drinking water, shower water, ambient air, indoor air, and food, among other sources, are common routes of exposure to environmental toxins. Inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption are also important mechanisms of toxic exposure.[1, 2, 3] Exposures often involve mixtures of solvents. Some of these incidents may occur deliberately when an individual recreationally inhales paints, glues, and other products; these exposures are described in more detail in the eMedicine article Inhalants.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulates worker exposure. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the American Congress of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) also publish standards for use in occupational settings in the United States.

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Pathophysiology

Short-term, high-level exposures such as those frequently reported in case reports can result in acute reversible and irreversible health effects that involve the CNS and PNS. In population studies, intermediate- and long-term, low-level exposures have lead to reversible and nonreversible subclinical and clinical abnormalities in the CNS and PNS. In some cases, these exposures were estimated to be below acceptable levels, as designated in regulations for workers. Neurophysiologic, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging diagnostic tools have been used to evaluate individuals and groups exposed to organic solvents.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

In 1987, NIOSH reported that 9.8 million workers were exposed to organic solvents in occupational settings. However, most occupational exposures involved solvent mixtures. Workers who use these agents include printers, paint manufacturers, painters, microelectronics workers, degreasers, dry cleaners, carpet layers, coating workers, gluers, dye workers, carpenters, anesthesia personnel, petrol filling workers, laboratory workers, inkers, and textile workers; others are those who work with polymers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic fabrics, agriculture products, refining, or in airplane refitting. Table 1 lists common sources of organic solvent exposures.

Table 1. Organic Solvents and Their Common Industrial Uses (Open Table in a new window)

CompoundIndustrial Uses
AcetoneCleaning solvent
AcrylamideMining and tunneling, adhesives, waste treatment, ore processing
BenzeneFuel, detergents, paint removers, manufacture of other solvents
Carbon disulfideViscose rayon, explosives, paints, preservatives, textiles, rubber cement, varnishes, electroplating
Ethylene oxide (ETO)Instrument sterilization
N- hexaneGlues and vegetable extraction, components of naphtha, lacquers, metal cleaning compounds
Hydrogen sulfideSulfur chemical manufacturing, by-product of petroleum processing, decay of organic matter
MethaneIndustrial settings
Methyl mercaptanOdorant in natural gas and fuels
Methyl-N- butyl ketoneMany industrial uses
Methylene chloride (dichloromethane)Solvent, refrigerant, propellant
OrganochlorineInsecticides
OrganophosphatesInsecticides
PCEDry cleaning, degreaser, textile industry
StyreneFiberglass component, ship building
ToluenePaint, fuel oil, cleaning agents, lacquers, paints and paint thinners
1,1,1-Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform)Degreaser and propellant
TCECleaning agent, paint component, decaffeination, rubber solvents, varnish
Vinyl chlorideIntermediate for polyvinylchloride resins for plastics, floor coverings, upholstery, appliances, packaging
XylenePaint, lacquers, varnishes, inks, dyes, adhesives, cements, fixative for pathologic specimens

Environmental exposures to organic solvents occur. Solvents are also present in home products. According to NIOSH, 49 million tons of organic solvents were produced in the United States in 1984. Contamination affecting community water supplies, food additives, or household chemicals is an important source of exposure. Well-water sampling, both in the United States and abroad, has revealed quantities of chlorinated hydrocarbons and other solvents. Health effects secondary to these exposures have been described.

Estimating rates of occupational exposure is difficult because of a variety of factors. Worker exposures vary even within the same job, exposures vary during a workday, many routes of absorption are possible, personal protective equipment (PPE) is used inconsistently, and solvents are commonly used in various mixtures. For environmental exposures, similar challenges exist. Industrial hygienists and risk-assessment scientists work to overcome these challenges.

Mortality/Morbidity

Details of morbidity are available in the History section below.

Age

Occupational exposures affect persons of working age. Environmental exposures affect persons of all ages.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Jonathan S Rutchik, MD, MPH  Clinical Professor, Division of Occupational Medicine, Department of Neurology, Environmental and Occupational Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine

Jonathan S Rutchik, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, and Society of Toxicology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Roberta J Seidman, MD  Associate Professor of Clinical Pathology, Stony Brook University; Director of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University Medical Center

Roberta J Seidman, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Association of Neuropathologists, New York Association of Neuropathologists (The Neuroplex), and Suffolk County Society of Pathologists

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Glenn Lopate, MD  Associate Professor, Department of Neurology, Division of Neuromuscular Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine; Director of Neurology Clinic, St Louis ConnectCare; Consulting Staff, Department of Neurology, Barnes-Jewish Hospital

Glenn Lopate, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Baxter Grant/research funds Other; Amgen Grant/research funds None

Selim R Benbadis, MD  Professor, Director of Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Tampa General Hospital, University of South Florida College of Medicine

Selim R Benbadis, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American Clinical Neurophysiology Society, American Epilepsy Society, and American Medical Association

Disclosure: UCB Pharma Honoraria Speaking, consulting; Lundbeck Honoraria Speaking, consulting; Cyberonics Honoraria Speaking, consulting; Glaxo Smith Kline Honoraria Speaking, consulting; Pfizer Honoraria Speaking, consulting; Sleepmed/DigiTrace Honoraria Speaking, consulting

Chief Editor

Tarakad S Ramachandran, MBBS, FRCP(C), FACP  Professor of Neurology, Clinical Professor of Medicine, Clinical Professor of Family Medicine, Clinical Professor of Neurosurgery, State University of New York Upstate Medical University; Chair, Department of Neurology, Crouse Irving Memorial Hospital

Tarakad S Ramachandran, MBBS, FRCP(C), FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Pain Medicine, American College of Forensic Examiners, American College of International Physicians, American College of Managed Care Medicine, American College of Physicians, American Heart Association, American Stroke Association, Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Royal College of Surgeons of England, and Royal Society of Medicine

Disclosure: Abbott Labs None None; Teva Marion None None; Boeringer-Ingelheim Honoraria Speaking and teaching

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Table 1. Organic Solvents and Their Common Industrial Uses
CompoundIndustrial Uses
AcetoneCleaning solvent
AcrylamideMining and tunneling, adhesives, waste treatment, ore processing
BenzeneFuel, detergents, paint removers, manufacture of other solvents
Carbon disulfideViscose rayon, explosives, paints, preservatives, textiles, rubber cement, varnishes, electroplating
Ethylene oxide (ETO)Instrument sterilization
N- hexaneGlues and vegetable extraction, components of naphtha, lacquers, metal cleaning compounds
Hydrogen sulfideSulfur chemical manufacturing, by-product of petroleum processing, decay of organic matter
MethaneIndustrial settings
Methyl mercaptanOdorant in natural gas and fuels
Methyl-N- butyl ketoneMany industrial uses
Methylene chloride (dichloromethane)Solvent, refrigerant, propellant
OrganochlorineInsecticides
OrganophosphatesInsecticides
PCEDry cleaning, degreaser, textile industry
StyreneFiberglass component, ship building
ToluenePaint, fuel oil, cleaning agents, lacquers, paints and paint thinners
1,1,1-Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform)Degreaser and propellant
TCECleaning agent, paint component, decaffeination, rubber solvents, varnish
Vinyl chlorideIntermediate for polyvinylchloride resins for plastics, floor coverings, upholstery, appliances, packaging
XylenePaint, lacquers, varnishes, inks, dyes, adhesives, cements, fixative for pathologic specimens
Table 2. Exposure levels Believed Safe for Workers
CompoundUrineBloodExpired Air
AcetoneAcetone, formic acid 100 mg/LAcetoneAcetone
BenzeneTotal phenol 50 mg/g at the end of the shift, trans-trans- muconic acidBenzeneBenzene before shift, 0.08 ppm; end exhaled, 0.12 ppm
Carbon disulfide2-TTCA 5 mg/g*Carbon disulfideCarbon disulfide
ETONoneNoneNone
N- hexane2,5-hexanediol 5 mg/g at the end of the shift, 2-hexanol, total metabolitesN- hexaneN- hexane
Hydrogen sulfideNoneNoneNone
MethaneNoneNoneNone
Methyl mercaptanNoneNoneNone
MethanolFormic acid 80 mg/g at the start of the work week, methanol 15 mg/g at the end of the shiftNoneMethanol
Methyl-N- butyl ketoneNone2,5-hexane dioneNone
Methylene chlorideNoneMeCl2MeCl2
OrganochlorineNoneNoneNone
OrganophosphatesNoneNoneNone
PCEPCE, trichloroacetic acidPCE 1 mg/LPCE 10 ppm before the last shift of the week
StyreneEnd of the shift: mandelic acid (MA) 800 mg, phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA) 240 mg/g)



Before shift: MA 300 mg/g or PGA 100 mg/g



Styrene 0.02 mg/L at the start of the shift, 0.55 mg/L at the end of the shiftNone
TolueneHippuric acidTolueneToluene
1,1,1-Trichlorethane (methyl chloroform)TCA 10 mg/L at the end of the work week; total trichloroethanol at the end of the shift and at the end of the work week, 30 mg/L Total trichloroethanol 1 mg/LMethyl chloroform 40 ppm before the last shift of the work week
TCETCE, TCA 100 mg/g at the end of the work week or TCA plus trichloroethanol 300 mg/gTCE at the end of the work week 4 mg/LTCE
Vinyl chlorideNoneNoneNone
XyleneMethylhippuric acid 1.5 g/g at the end of the shiftXyleneXylene
* TTCA - 2-thiothiazolidine 4-carboxylic acid.
Table 3. Recommended Exposure Limits, Organic Solvents
Compoundppm, mg/m,3
OSHA PEL as TWAsNIOSH REL as TWAs, IDLHACGIH TLV, STEL
Acetone1000 (2400)250 (590), 2500750 (1780) ceiling, 1000 (2380)
Acrylamide0.3(0.03), 60 level for carcinogenicityNone
Benzene10, 25 ceiling, 50 for 10 min0.1, STEL 1, 50010 (32)
Carbon disulfide20, 30, 100 for 30 min1 (3), 10 STEL (30), 50010 (31)
ETO< 0.1, < 0.18, 5 ceiling, 8001 (1.8)
N- hexane500 (1800)50 (180), 110050 (176)
Hydrogen sulfide20 ceiling, 50 for 10 min once only10 ceiling, (15) for 10 min, 100None
Methyl mercaptan10 ceiling (20)0.5 ceiling, (1) for 15 min, 150None
Methanol200 (260)200 (260), 250 STEL (325), 6000262 (200), 328 (250)
Methyl-n- butyl ketone100 (410)None5 (20)
Methylene chloride25, 15 STEL for 15 min2300 level for carcinogenicity50 (174) ceiling
Perchloroethylene100, 200 ceiling, 300 for 5 min in 3 h150 level for carcinogenicity25 (170), 100 (685)
Styrene100, 200 ceiling, 600 for 5 min in 3 h50 (215), 100 ST (425), 70050 (213), 100 (428)
Toluene200, 300, 500 for 10 min100 (375), 150 STEL (560), 50050 (188)
1,1,1-Trichlorethane (methyl chloroform)350 (1900)Ceiling 350 (1900) for 15 min, 700350 (1910), 450 (2460)
Trichloroethylene100, 200 ceiling, 300 for 5 min in 2 h1000 level for carcinogenicity50 (269), 100 (1070)
Vinyl chloride1, 5 for 15 minNot determinedNone
Xylene100 (435)100 (435), 150 STEL (655)100 (434),150 (651)
Abbreviations—ACGIH = American Congress of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, IDLH = Immediately dangerous to life or health; NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration, PEL = permissible exposure limit, REL = recommended exposure limit; STEL = short-term exposure limit; TWA = time-weighted average.
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