Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Differential Diagnoses

  • Author: Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP; Chief Editor: George T Griffing, MD   more...
 
Updated: Apr 4, 2012
 
 

Diagnostic Considerations

Type 2 diabetes mellitus can usually be differentiated from type 1 diabetes mellitus on the basis of history and physical examination findings and simple laboratory tests.

Correctly determining whether a patient has type 1 or type 2 diabetes is important because patients with type 1 diabetes are dependent on a continuous source of exogenous insulin and carbohydrates for survival. Patients with type 2 diabetes may not need treatment of hyperglycemia during periods of fasting or decreased oral intake.

A patient whose diabetes is controlled with diet or an oral antidiabetic agent clearly has type 2 diabetes. A lean patient who has had diabetes since childhood, who has always been dependent on insulin, or who has a history of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) almost certainly has type 1 diabetes.

When dealing with patients with known diabetes in the emergency department, distinguishing the type of diabetes can be difficult in 2 groups: patients who are treated with insulin and are young but clinically appear to have type 2 diabetes; and older patients with late onset of diabetes who nonetheless take insulin and seem to share characteristics of patients with type 1 diabetes. (This latter group is now said to have latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult [LADA]).

When in doubt, the patient should be treated with insulin and his or her glucose levels should be closely monitored. Some adolescents or young adults, mostly Hispanic or African American patients, who present with classic DKA are subsequently found to have type 2 diabetes.

Pre-diabetes

Pre-diabetes often precedes overt type 2 diabetes. Pre-diabetes is defined by a fasting blood glucose level of 100-125 mg/dL or a 2-hour post oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) glucose level of 140-200 mg/dL. Persons with pre-diabetes have an increased risk for macrovascular disease as well as diabetes.[58]

Often confused with pre-diabetes is the metabolic syndrome (also called syndrome X or the insulin-resistance syndrome). Metabolic syndrome, thought to be due to insulin resistance, can occur in patients with overtly normal glucose tolerance, pre-diabetes, or diabetes. It is diagnosed when a patient has at least 3 of the following 5 conditions:

  • Abdominal obesity
  • Elevated triglyceride level
  • Low HDL-C level
  • Elevated blood pressure
  • Fasting glucose value greater than or equal to 100 mg/dL

Eventually, clinically apparent insulin resistance develops. Unfortunately, insulin resistance is not measured clinically, except in research settings. An elevated fasting blood glucose level is the first indication of insulin resistance, but fasting insulin levels are generally increased long before this occurs. Measurement of fasting insulin levels are not yet recommended for the diagnosis of insulin resistance. An effort to standardize insulin assays is under way and may allow for the use of fasting insulin levels to diagnose insulin resistance in the future.

Differential Diagnoses

Proceed to Workup
 
 
Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP  Professor of Endocrinology, Director of Training Program, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Strelitz Diabetes and Endocrine Disorders Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, and Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

George T Griffing, MD  Professor of Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

George T Griffing, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Medical Practice Executives, American College of Physician Executives, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Heart Association, Central Society for Clinical Research, Endocrine Society, International Society for Clinical Densitometry, and Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

Howard A Bessen, MD Professor of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Program Director, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center

Howard A Bessen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Barry E Brenner, MD, PhD, FACEP Professor of Emergency Medicine, Professor of Internal Medicine, Program Director, Emergency Medicine, Case Medical Center, University Hospitals, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine

Barry E Brenner, MD, PhD, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Heart Association, American Thoracic Society, Arkansas Medical Society, New York Academy of Medicine, New York Academy of Sciences,and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

William L Isley, MD Senior Associate Consultant, Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic of Rochester

William L Isley, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, Endocrine Society, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Kenneth Patrick L Ligaray, MD Fellow, Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, St Louis University School of Medicine

Kenneth Patrick Ligaray, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Anne L Peters, MD, CDE Director of Clinical Diabetes Programs, Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, Los Angeles County/University of Southern California Medical Center

Anne L Peters, MD, CDE is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and American Diabetes Association

Disclosure: Amylin Honoraria Speaking and teaching; AstraZeneca Consulting fee Consulting; Lilly Consulting fee Consulting; Takeda Consulting fee Consulting; Bristol Myers Squibb Honoraria Speaking and teaching; NovoNordisk Consulting fee Consulting; Medtronic Minimed Consulting fee Consulting; Dexcom Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Roche Honoraria Speaking and teaching

David S Schade, MD Chief, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine and Health Sciences Center

David S Schade, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, Endocrine Society, New Mexico Medical Society, New York Academy of Sciences, and Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Don S Schalch, MD Professor Emeritus, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics

Don S Schalch, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, Central Society for Clinical Research, and Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Erik D Schraga, MD Staff Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Mills-Peninsula Emergency Medical Associates

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Scott R Votey, MD Director of Emergency Medicine Residency, Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center; Professor of Medicine/Emergency Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Scott R Votey, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

  1. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. Jan 2003;26 Suppl 1:S5-20. [Medline].

  2. Laditka SB, Mastanduno MP, Laditka JN. Health care use of individuals with diabetes in an employer-based insurance population. Arch Intern Med. May 28 2001;161(10):1301-8. [Medline].

  3. Boden G. Fatty acids and insulin resistance. Diabetes Care. Apr 1996;19(4):394-5. [Medline].

  4. Bacha F, Lee S, Gungor N, Arslanian SA. From pre-diabetes to type 2 diabetes in obese youth: pathophysiological characteristics along the spectrum of glucose dysregulation. Diabetes Care. Oct 2010;33(10):2225-31. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  5. Hansen KB, Vilsbøll T, Bagger JI, Holst JJ, Knop FK. Increased postprandial GIP and glucagon responses, but unaltered GLP-1 response after intervention with steroid hormone, relative physical inactivity, and high-calorie diet in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Feb 2011;96(2):447-53. [Medline].

  6. Chiefari E, Tanyolaç S, Paonessa F, Pullinger CR, Capula C, Iiritano S, et al. Functional variants of the HMGA1 gene and type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. Mar 2 2011;305(9):903-12. [Medline].

  7. Krssak M, Winhofer Y, Gobl C, et al. Insulin resistance is not associated with myocardial steatosis in women. Diabetologia. Jul 2011;54(7):1871-8. [Medline].

  8. Leiter LA, Lundman P, da Silva PM, et al. Persistent lipid abnormalities in statin-treated patients with diabetes mellitus in Europe and Canada: results of the Dyslipidaemia International Study. Diabet Med. Nov 2011;28(11):1343-1351. [Medline].

  9. Simo R, Barbosa-Desongles A, Lecube A, Hernandez C, Selva DM. Potential Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor-a in Downregulating Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin. Diabetes. Feb 2012;61(2):372-82. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  10. Stern MP. Do non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease share common antecedents?. Ann Intern Med. Jan 1 1996;124(1 Pt 2):110-6. [Medline].

  11. Haffner SM, D'Agostino R Jr, Mykkänen L, Tracy R, Howard B, Rewers M, et al. Insulin sensitivity in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Relationship to cardiovascular risk factors: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes Care. Apr 1999;22(4):562-8. [Medline].

  12. Philippe MF, Benabadji S, Barbot-Trystram L, et al. Pancreatic volume and endocrine and exocrine functions in patients with diabetes. Pancreas. Apr 2011;40(3):359-63. [Medline].

  13. Murphy HR, Steel SA, Roland JM, et al. Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes: influences of glycaemic control, obesity and social disadvantage. Diabet Med. Sep 2011;28(9):1060-7. [Medline].

  14. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet. Jan 10 2004;363(9403):157-63. [Medline].

  15. Wei GS, Coady SA, Goff DC Jr, et al. Blood Pressure and the Risk of Developing Diabetes in African Americans and Whites: ARIC, CARDIA, and the Framingham Heart Study. Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):873-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  16. Dabelea D, Pettitt DJ, Hanson RL, Imperatore G, Bennett PH, Knowler WC. Birth weight, type 2 diabetes, and insulin resistance in Pima Indian children and young adults. Diabetes Care. Jun 1999;22(6):944-50. [Medline].

  17. Yarbrough DE, Barrett-Connor E, Kritz-Silverstein D, Wingard DL. Birth weight, adult weight, and girth as predictors of the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal women: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Diabetes Care. Oct 1998;21(10):1652-8. [Medline].

  18. [Best Evidence] Wang J, Luben R, Khaw KT, Bingham S, Wareham NJ, Forouhi NG. Dietary energy density predicts the risk of incident type 2 diabetes: the European Prospective Investigation of Cancer (EPIC)-Norfolk Study. Diabetes Care. Nov 2008;31(11):2120-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  19. Hectors TL, Vanparys C, van der Ven K, et al. Environmental pollutants and type 2 diabetes: a review of mechanisms that can disrupt beta cell function. Diabetologia. Jun 2011;54(6):1273-90. [Medline].

  20. Andersen ZJ, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Ketzel M, et al. Diabetes Incidence and Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution: A cohort study. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35(1):92-8. [Medline].

  21. Kilpelainen TO, Zillikens MC, Stancakova A, et al. Genetic variation near IRS1 associates with reduced adiposity and an impaired metabolic profile. Nat Genet. Jun 26 2011;43(8):753-60. [Medline].

  22. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011. National diabetes fact sheet: national estimates and general information on diabetes and prediabetes in the United States, 2011. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2011.pdf. Accessed January 28, 2011.

  23. Ludwig J, Sanbonmatsu L, Gennetian L, et al. Neighborhoods, obesity, and diabetes--a randomized social experiment. N Engl J Med. Oct 20 2011;365(16):1509-19. [Medline].

  24. Malik VS, Fung TT, van Dam RM, et al. Dietary patterns during adolescence and risk of type 2 diabetes in middle-aged women. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35(1):12-8. [Medline].

  25. Selvin E, Steffes MW, Ballantyne CM, Hoogeveen RC, Coresh J, Brancati FL. Racial Differences in Glycemic Markers: A Cross-sectional Analysis of Community-Based Data. Ann Intern Med. Mar 1 2011;154(5):303-9. [Medline].

  26. Webb DR, Gray LJ, Khunti K, et al. Screening for diabetes using an oral glucose tolerance test within a western multi-ethnic population identifies modifiable cardiovascular risk: the ADDITION-Leicester study. Diabetologia. Sep 2011;54(9):2237-46. [Medline].

  27. ADA. Position statements. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35 Suppl 1:e113. [Medline].

  28. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Diabetes Statistics, 2007. National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse. Available at http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/. Accessed August 3, 2010.

  29. Shurraw S, Hemmelgarn B, Lin M, Majumdar SR, Klarenbach S, Manns B, et al. Association Between Glycemic Control and Adverse Outcomes in People With Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med. Nov 28 2011;171(21):1920-1927. [Medline].

  30. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Whincup PH, Lennon L, Sattar N. Impact of diabetes on cardiovascular disease risk and all-cause mortality in older men: influence of age at onset, diabetes duration, and established and novel risk factors. Arch Intern Med. Mar 14 2011;171(5):404-10. [Medline].

  31. Hemmingsen B, Lund SS, Gluud C, Vaag A, et al. Targeting intensive glycaemic control versus targeting conventional glycaemic control for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Jun 15 2011;6:CD008143. [Medline].

  32. Seshasai SR, Kaptoge S, Thompson A, Di Angelantonio E, Gao P, Sarwar N, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. N Engl J Med. Mar 3 2011;364(9):829-41. [Medline].

  33. Kengne AP, Batty GD, Hamer M, Stamatakis E, Czernichow S. Association of C-Reactive Protein With Cardiovascular Disease Mortality According to Diabetes Status: Pooled analyses of 25,979 participants from four U.K. prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Care. Feb 2012;35(2):396-403. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  34. Shah AS, Khoury PR, Dolan LM, et al. The effects of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus on cardiac structure and function in adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia. Apr 2011;54(4):722-30. [Medline].

  35. Giovannucci E, Harlan DM, Archer MC, Bergenstal RM, Gapstur SM, Habel LA, et al. Diabetes and cancer: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. Jul 2010;33(7):1674-85. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  36. Yeh HC, Platz EA, Wang NY, et al. A prospective study of the associations between treated diabetes and cancer outcomes. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35(1):113-8. [Medline].

  37. Tseng CH. Diabetes and risk of bladder cancer: a study using the National Health Insurance database in Taiwan. Diabetologia. Aug 2011;54(8):2009-15. [Medline].

  38. Pan A, Lucas M, Sun Q, van Dam RM, Franco OH, Manson JE, et al. Bidirectional association between depression and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. Arch Intern Med. Nov 22 2010;170(21):1884-91. [Medline].

  39. Nouwen A, Winkley K, Twisk J, Lloyd CE, Peyrot M, Ismail K, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for the onset of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. Dec 2010;53(12):2480-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  40. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet. Sep 12 1998;352(9131):837-53. [Medline].

  41. Christman AL, Matsushita K, Gottesman RF, et al. Glycated haemoglobin and cognitive decline: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Diabetologia. Jul 2011;54(7):1645-52. [Medline].

  42. Albers JW, Herman WH, Pop-Busui R, Feldman EL, Martin CL, Cleary PA, et al. Effect of prior intensive insulin treatment during the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) on peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes during the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Study. Diabetes Care. May 2010;33(5):1090-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  43. White NH, Sun W, Cleary PA, Tamborlane WV, Danis RP, Hainsworth DP, et al. Effect of prior intensive therapy in type 1 diabetes on 10-year progression of retinopathy in the DCCT/EDIC: comparison of adults and adolescents. Diabetes. May 2010;59(5):1244-53. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  44. Dluhy RG, McMahon GT. Intensive glycemic control in the ACCORD and ADVANCE trials. N Engl J Med. Jun 12 2008;358(24):2630-3. [Medline].

  45. Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, Buse J, Deedwania P, Gale EA, et al. Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes Trials: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a Scientific Statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. J Am Coll Cardiol. Jan 20 2009;53(3):298-304. [Medline].

  46. Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, Reda D, Emanuele N, Reaven PD, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. Jan 8 2009;360(2):129-39. [Medline].

  47. Griffin SJ, Borch-Johnsen K, Davies MJ, et al. Effect of early intensive multifactorial therapy on 5-year cardiovascular outcomes in individuals with type 2 diabetes detected by screening (ADDITION-Europe): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. Jul 9 2011;378(9786):156-67. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  48. Kerr D, Partridge H, Knott J, Thomas PW. HbA(1c) 3 months after diagnosis predicts premature mortality in patients with new onset type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. Dec 2011;28(12):1520-4. [Medline].

  49. Cano JF, Baena-Diez JM, Franch J, Vila J, Tello S, Sala J, et al. Long-term cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetic compared with nondiabetic first acute myocardial infarction patients: a population-based cohort study in southern Europe. Diabetes Care. Sep 2010;33(9):2004-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  50. Nicolau JC, Serrano CV Jr, Giraldez RR, et al. In patients with acute myocardial infarction, the impact of hyperglycemia as a risk factor for mortality is not homogeneous across age-groups. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35(1):150-2. [Medline].

  51. Sperl-Hillen J, Beaton S, Fernandes O, et al. Comparative Effectiveness of Patient Education Methods for Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch Intern Med. Oct 10 2011;[Medline].

  52. [Best Evidence] Duke SA, Colagiuri S, Colagiuri R. Individual patient education for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Jan 21 2009;CD005268. [Medline].

  53. Colayco DC, Niu F, McCombs JS, Cheetham TC. A1C and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a nested case-control study. Diabetes Care. Jan 2011;34(1):77-83. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  54. Ng JM, Cooke M, Bhandari S, Atkin SL, Kilpatrick ES. The effect of iron and erythropoietin treatment on the A1C of patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Diabetes Care. Nov 2010;33(11):2310-3. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  55. ADA. Diabetes and driving. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35 Suppl 1:S81-6. [Medline].

  56. Harris MI, Klein R, Welborn TA, Knuiman MW. Onset of NIDDM occurs at least 4-7 yr before clinical diagnosis. Diabetes Care. Jul 1992;15(7):815-9. [Medline].

  57. Kim ES, Moon SD, Kim HS, et al. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy is associated with increased arterial stiffness without changes in carotid intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1403-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  58. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. Jan 2010;33 Suppl 1:S62-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  59. Brambilla P, La Valle E, Falbo R, et al. Normal fasting plasma glucose and risk of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1372-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  60. Sacks DB, Arnold M, Bakris GL, et al. Executive summary: guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus. Clin Chem. Jun 2011;57(6):793-8. [Medline].

  61. Wilson DM, Xing D, Cheng J, et al. Persistence of individual variations in glycated hemoglobin: analysis of data from the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Continuous Glucose Monitoring Randomized Trial. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1315-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  62. Testa R, Olivieri F, Sirolla C, et al. Leukocyte telomere length is associated with complications of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. Nov 2011;28(11):1388-1394. [Medline].

  63. van Dieren S, Nöthlings U, van der Schouw YT, Spijkerman AM, Rutten GE, van der A DL, et al. Non-fasting lipids and risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. Jan 2011;54(1):73-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  64. World Health Organization. Diabetes Mellitus: Report of WHO Study Group. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1985. Tech. Rep. Ser.

  65. International Expert Committee report on the role of the A1C assay in the diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jul 2009;32(7):1327-34. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  66. Huang ES, Liu JY, Moffet HH, John PM, Karter AJ. Glycemic control, complications, and death in older diabetic patients: the diabetes and aging study. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1329-36. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  67. Nowicka P, Santoro N, Liu H, et al. Utility of hemoglobin a1c for diagnosing prediabetes and diabetes in obese children and adolescents. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1306-11. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  68. [Best Evidence] Lu ZX, Walker KZ, O'Dea K, Sikaris KA, Shaw JE. A1C for screening and diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in routine clinical practice. Diabetes Care. Apr 2010;33(4):817-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  69. Gerstein HC, Islam S, Anand S, Almahmeed W, Damasceno A, Dans A, et al. Dysglycaemia and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in multiple ethnic groups: an analysis of 15,780 patients from the INTERHEART study. Diabetologia. Dec 2010;53(12):2509-17. [Medline].

  70. Suzuki S, Koga M, Amamiya S, et al. Glycated albumin but not HbA(1c) reflects glycaemic control in patients with neonatal diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. Sep 2011;54(9):2247-53. [Medline].

  71. Wang W, Lee ET, Howard BV, Fabsitz RR, Devereux RB, Welty TK. Fasting plasma glucose and hemoglobin A1c in identifying and predicting diabetes: the strong heart study. Diabetes Care. Feb 2011;34(2):363-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  72. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Adults. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/uspsdiab.htm.

  73. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2010. Diabetes Care. Jan 2010;33 Suppl 1:S11-61. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  74. Yamasaki Y, Nakajima K, Kusuoka H, Izumi T, Kashiwagi A, Kawamori R, et al. Prognostic value of gated myocardial perfusion imaging for asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes: the J-ACCESS 2 investigation. Diabetes Care. Nov 2010;33(11):2320-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  75. Young LH, Wackers FJ, Chyun DA, Davey JA, Barrett EJ, Taillefer R, et al. Cardiac outcomes after screening for asymptomatic coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: the DIAD study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. Apr 15 2009;301(15):1547-55. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  76. Wang TJ, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Cheng S, Rhee EP, McCabe E, et al. Metabolite profiles and the risk of developing diabetes. Nat Med. Mar 20 2011;[Medline].

  77. Bonnet F, Ducluzeau PH, Gastaldelli A, et al. Liver enzymes are associated with hepatic insulin resistance, insulin secretion, and glucagon concentration in healthy men and women. Diabetes. Jun 2011;60(6):1660-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  78. Thaning P, Bune LT, Zaar M, Saltin B, Rosenmeier JB. Functional sympatholysis during exercise in patients with type 2 diabetes with intact response to acetylcholine. Diabetes Care. May 2011;34(5):1186-91. [Medline].

  79. Morrison F, Shubina M, Turchin A. Encounter frequency and serum glucose level, blood pressure, and cholesterol level control in patients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. Sep 26 2011;171(17):1542-50. [Medline].

  80. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet. Sep 12 1998;352(9131):854-65. [Medline].

  81. Roussel R, Travert F, Pasquet B, Wilson PW, Smith SC Jr, Goto S, et al. Metformin use and mortality among patients with diabetes and atherothrombosis. Arch Intern Med. Nov 22 2010;170(21):1892-9. [Medline].

  82. Efficacy of atenolol and captopril in reducing risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 39. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ. Sep 12 1998;317(7160):713-20. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  83. Pergola PE, Raskin P, Toto RD, et al. Bardoxolone Methyl and Kidney Function in CKD with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. Jun 24 2011;[Medline].

  84. Chai W, Liu J, Jahn LA, et al. Salsalate attenuates free Fatty Acid-induced microvascular and metabolic insulin resistance in humans. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1634-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  85. Zeller M, Danchin N, Simon D, Vahanian A, Lorgis L, Cottin Y, et al. Impact of type of preadmission sulfonylureas on mortality and cardiovascular outcomes in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Nov 2010;95(11):4993-5002. [Medline].

  86. Scarpello JH, Howlett HC. Metformin therapy and clinical uses. Diab Vasc Dis Res. Sep 2008;5(3):157-67. [Medline].

  87. [Best Evidence] Bodmer M, Meier C, Krähenbühl S, Jick SS, Meier CR. Metformin, sulfonylureas, or other antidiabetes drugs and the risk of lactic acidosis or hypoglycemia: a nested case-control analysis. Diabetes Care. Nov 2008;31(11):2086-91. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  88. Turner RC, Cull CA, Frighi V, Holman RR. Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: progressive requirement for multiple therapies (UKPDS 49). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. JAMA. Jun 2 1999;281(21):2005-12. [Medline].

  89. UKPDS 28: a randomized trial of efficacy of early addition of metformin in sulfonylurea-treated type 2 diabetes. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Diabetes Care. Jan 1998;21(1):87-92. [Medline].

  90. [Best Evidence] Kooy A, de Jager J, Lehert P, Bets D, Wulffelé MG, Donker AJ, et al. Long-term effects of metformin on metabolism and microvascular and macrovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. Mar 23 2009;169(6):616-25. [Medline].

  91. [Best Evidence] Pradhan AD, Everett BM, Cook NR, Rifai N, Ridker PM. Effects of initiating insulin and metformin on glycemic control and inflammatory biomarkers among patients with type 2 diabetes: the LANCET randomized trial. JAMA. Sep 16 2009;302(11):1186-94. [Medline].

  92. Andersson C, Olesen JB, Hansen PR, Weeke P, Norgaard ML, Jørgensen CH, et al. Metformin treatment is associated with a low risk of mortality in diabetic patients with heart failure: a retrospective nationwide cohort study. Diabetologia. Dec 2010;53(12):2546-53. [Medline].

  93. Gross JL, Kramer CK, Leitao CB, et al. Effect of antihyperglycemic agents added to metformin and a sulfonylurea on glycemic control and weight gain in type 2 diabetes: a network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. May 17 2011;154(10):672-9. [Medline].

  94. Reinstatler L, Qi YP, Williamson RS, Garn JV, Oakley GP Jr. Association of biochemical B12 deficiency with metformin therapy and vitamin B12 supplements: the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999-2006. Diabetes Care. Feb 2012;35(2):327-33. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  95. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJ, Erdmann E, Massi-Benedetti M, Moules IK, et al. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Oct 8 2005;366(9493):1279-89. [Medline].

  96. Lewis JD, Ferrara A, Peng T, et al. Risk of Bladder Cancer Among Diabetic Patients Treated With Pioglitazone: Interim report of a longitudinal cohort study. Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):916-22. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  97. Ferrara A, Lewis JD, Quesenberry CP Jr, et al. Cohort study of pioglitazone and cancer incidence in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):923-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  98. Piccinni C, Motola D, Marchesini G, Poluzzi E. Assessing the association of pioglitazone use and bladder cancer through drug adverse event reporting. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1369-71. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  99. [Best Evidence] Charpentier G, Halimi S. Earlier triple therapy with pioglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. Sep 2009;11(9):844-54. [Medline].

  100. DeFronzo RA, Tripathy D, Schwenke DC, et al. Pioglitazone for diabetes prevention in impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. Mar 24 2011;364(12):1104-15. [Medline].

  101. [Best Evidence] Loke YK, Singh S, Furberg CD. Long-term use of thiazolidinediones and fractures in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. Jan 6 2009;180(1):32-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  102. Retnakaran R, Qi Y, Harris SB, Hanley AJ, Zinman B. Changes Over Time in Glycemic Control, Insulin Sensitivity, and {beta}-Cell Function in Response to Low-Dose Metformin and Thiazolidinedione Combination Therapy in Patients With Impaired Glucose Tolerance. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1601-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  103. Lee CG, Boyko EJ, Barrett-Connor E, et al. Insulin Sensitizers May Attenuate Lean Mass Loss in Older Men With Diabetes. Diabetes Care. Nov 2011;34(11):2381-2386. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  104. Phung OJ, Sood NA, Sill BE, Coleman CI. Oral anti-diabetic drugs for the prevention of Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. Aug 2011;28(8):948-64. [Medline].

  105. [Best Evidence] Drucker DJ, Buse JB, Taylor K, Kendall DM, Trautmann M, Zhuang D, et al. Exenatide once weekly versus twice daily for the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a randomised, open-label, non-inferiority study. Lancet. Oct 4 2008;372(9645):1240-50. [Medline].

  106. Blevins T, Pullman J, Malloy J, Yan P, Taylor K, Schulteis C, et al. DURATION-5: exenatide once weekly resulted in greater improvements in glycemic control compared with exenatide twice daily in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. May 2011;96(5):1301-10. [Medline].

  107. Diamant M, Van Gaal L, Stranks S, Guerci B, Macconell L, Haber H, et al. Safety and efficacy of once-weekly exenatide compared with insulin glargine titrated to target in patients with type 2 diabetes over 84 weeks. Diabetes Care. Apr 2012;35(4):683-9. [Medline].

  108. [Best Evidence] Bunck MC, Diamant M, Cornér A, Eliasson B, Malloy JL, Shaginian RM, et al. One-year treatment with exenatide improves beta-cell function, compared with insulin glargine, in metformin-treated type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, controlled trial. Diabetes Care. May 2009;32(5):762-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  109. Buse JB, Bergenstal RM, Glass LC, Heilmann CR, Lewis MS, Kwan AY, et al. Use of twice-daily exenatide in Basal insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. Jan 18 2011;154(2):103-12. [Medline].

  110. Foley JE, Bunck MC, Moller-Goede DL, et al. Beta cell function following 1 year vildagliptin or placebo treatment and after 12 week washout in drug-naive patients with type 2 diabetes and mild hyperglycaemia: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia. Aug 2011;54(8):1985-91. [Medline].

  111. [Best Evidence] Aschner P, Katzeff HL, Guo H, Sunga S, Williams-Herman D, Kaufman KD, et al. Efficacy and safety of monotherapy of sitagliptin compared with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. Mar 2010;12(3):252-61. [Medline].

  112. Vilsbøll T, Rosenstock J, Yki-Järvinen H, Cefalu WT, Chen Y, Luo E, et al. Efficacy and safety of sitagliptin when added to insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. Feb 2010;12(2):167-77. [Medline].

  113. Perez-Monteverde A, Seck T, Xu L, et al. Efficacy and safety of sitagliptin and the fixed-dose combination of sitagliptin and metformin vs. pioglitazone in drug-naïve patients with type 2 diabetes. Int J Clin Pract. Sep 2011;65(9):930-8. [Medline].

  114. Karagiannis T, Paschos P, Paletas K, Matthews DR, Tsapas A. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the clinical setting: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. Mar 12 2012;344:e1369. [Medline].

  115. Owens DR, Swallow R, Dugi KA, Woerle HJ. Efficacy and safety of linagliptin in persons with Type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by a combination of metformin and sulphonylurea: a 24-week randomized study(1). Diabet Med. Nov 2011;28(11):1352-61. [Medline].

  116. Willemen MJ, Mantel-Teeuwisse AK, Straus SM, Meyboom RH, Egberts TC, Leufkens HG. Use of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and the reporting of infections: a disproportionality analysis in the World Health Organization VigiBase. Diabetes Care. Feb 2011;34(2):369-74. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  117. Monami M, Dicembrini I, Antenore A, Mannucci E. Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors and Bone Fractures: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Diabetes Care. Nov 2011;34(11):2474-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  118. de la Pena A, Riddle M, Morrow LA, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of high-dose human regular u-500 insulin versus human regular u-100 insulin in healthy obese subjects. Diabetes Care. Dec 2011;34(12):2496-501. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  119. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Comparative Effectiveness, Safety, and Indications of Insulin Analogues in Premixed Formulations for Adults With Type 2 Diabetes. AHRQ: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Available at http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/index.cfm/search-for-guides-reviews-and-reports/?productid=108&pageaction=displayproduct. Accessed April 13, 2009.

  120. US Food and Drug Administration. Early Communication About Safety of Lantus (Insulin Glargine). [Full Text].

  121. Blin P, Lassalle R, Dureau-Pournin C, et al. Insulin glargine and risk of cancer: a cohort study in the French National Healthcare Insurance Database. Diabetologia. Mar 2012;55(3):644-53. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  122. Suissa S, Azoulay L, Dell'aniello S, et al. Long-term effects of insulin glargine on the risk of breast cancer. Diabetologia. Sep 2011;54(9):2254-62. [Medline].

  123. Johnson JA, Bowker SL, Richardson K, Marra CA. Time-varying incidence of cancer after the onset of type 2 diabetes: evidence of potential detection bias. Diabetologia. Sep 2011;54(9):2263-71. [Medline].

  124. Stefansdottir G, Zoungas S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive glucose control and risk of cancer in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. Jul 2011;54(7):1608-14. [Medline].

  125. Ruiter R, Visser LE, van Herk-Sukel MP, et al. Lower Risk of Cancer in Patients on Metformin in Comparison With Those on Sulfonylurea Derivatives: Results from a large population-based follow-up study. Diabetes Care. Jan 2012;35(1):119-24. [Medline].

  126. Zinman B, Fulcher G, Rao PV, et al. Insulin degludec, an ultra-long-acting basal insulin, once a day or three times a week versus insulin glargine once a day in patients with type 2 diabetes: a 16-week, randomised, open-label, phase 2 trial. Lancet. Mar 12 2011;377(9769):924-31. [Medline].

  127. Avanzini F, Marelli G, Donzelli W, et al. Transition From Intravenous to Subcutaneous Insulin: Effectiveness and safety of a standardized protocol and predictors of outcome in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1445-1450. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  128. Shyangdan DS, Royle P, Clar C, et al. Glucagon-like peptide analogues for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Oct 5 2011;CD006423. [Medline].

  129. Moon HS, Matarese G, Brennan AM, et al. Efficacy of metreleptin in obese patients with type 2 diabetes: cellular and molecular pathways underlying leptin tolerance. Diabetes. Jun 2011;60(6):1647-56. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  130. Handelsman Y, Goldberg RB, Garvey WT, Fonseca VA, Rosenstock J, Jones MR, et al. Colesevelam hydrochloride to treat hypercholesterolemia and improve glycemia in prediabetes: a randomized, prospective study. Endocr Pract. Jul-Aug 2010;16(4):617-28. [Medline].

  131. Rosenstock J, Fonseca VA, Garvey WT, Goldberg RB, Handelsman Y, Abby SL, et al. Initial combination therapy with metformin and colesevelam for achievement of glycemic and lipid goals in early type 2 diabetes. Endocr Pract. Jul-Aug 2010;16(4):629-40. [Medline].

  132. Bonadonna RC, Heise T, Arbet-Engels C, Kapitza C, Avogaro A, Grimsby J, et al. Piragliatin (RO4389620), a novel glucokinase activator, lowers plasma glucose both in the postabsorptive state and after a glucose challenge in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a mechanistic study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Nov 2010;95(11):5028-36. [Medline].

  133. Meininger GE, Scott R, Alba M, et al. Effects of MK-0941, a Novel Glucokinase Activator, on Glycemic Control in Insulin-Treated Patients With Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care. Dec 2011;34(12):2560-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  134. Belch J, Hiatt WR, Baumgartner I, et al. Effect of fibroblast growth factor NV1FGF on amputation and death: a randomised placebo-controlled trial of gene therapy in critical limb ischaemia. Lancet. Jun 4 2011;377(9781):1929-37. [Medline].

  135. Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, Ferrannini E, Holman RR, Sherwin R, et al. Medical management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement of the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jan 2009;32(1):193-203. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  136. Boule NG, Robert C, Bell GJ, et al. Metformin and Exercise in Type 2 Diabetes: Examining treatment modality interactions. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1469-74. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  137. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Comparative Effectiveness and Safety of Oral Diabetes Medications for Adults With Type 2 Diabetes. AHRQ: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Available at http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/6/39/OralFullReport.pdf. Accessed January 27, 2009.

  138. Bellomo Damato A, Stefanelli G, Laviola L, Giorgino R, Giorgino F. Nateglinide provides tighter glycaemic control than glyburide in patients with Type 2 diabetes with prevalent postprandial hyperglycaemia. Diabet Med. May 2011;28(5):560-6. [Medline].

  139. Chen MJ, Jovanovic A, Taylor R. Utilizing the second-meal effect in type 2 diabetes: practical use of a soya-yogurt snack. Diabetes Care. Dec 2010;33(12):2552-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  140. [Best Evidence] Qayyum R, Bolen S, Maruthur N, Feldman L, Wilson LM, Marinopoulos SS, et al. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and safety of premixed insulin analogues in type 2 diabetes. Ann Intern Med. Oct 21 2008;149(8):549-59. [Medline].

  141. Porcellati F, Lucidi P, Rossetti P, et al. Differential Effects of Adiposity on Pharmacodynamics of Basal Insulins NPH, Glargine, and Detemir in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care. Dec 2011;34(12):2521-3. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  142. [Best Evidence] Fritsche A, Larbig M, Owens D, Häring HU. Comparison between a basal-bolus and a premixed insulin regimen in individuals with type 2 diabetes-results of the GINGER study. Diabetes Obes Metab. Feb 2010;12(2):115-23. [Medline].

  143. Umpierrez GE, Smiley D, Jacobs S, Peng L, Temponi A, Mulligan P, et al. Randomized study of basal-bolus insulin therapy in the inpatient management of patients with type 2 diabetes undergoing general surgery (RABBIT 2 surgery). Diabetes Care. Feb 2011;34(2):256-61. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  144. Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Genuth S, Ismail-Beigi F, Buse JB, Goff DC Jr, et al. Long-term effects of intensive glucose lowering on cardiovascular outcomes. N Engl J Med. Mar 3 2011;364(9):818-28. [Medline].

  145. Paynter NP, Mazer NA, Pradhan AD, et al. Cardiovascular Risk Prediction in Diabetic Men and Women Using Hemoglobin A1c vs Diabetes as a High-Risk Equivalent. Arch Intern Med. Jul 25 2011;[Medline].

  146. Siegelaar SE, Kerr L, Jacober SJ, Devries JH. A Decrease in Glucose Variability Does Not Reduce Cardiovascular Event Rates in Type 2 Diabetic Patients After Acute Myocardial Infarction: A reanalysis of the HEART2D study. Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):855-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  147. [Guideline] Qaseem A, Vijan S, Snow V, Cross JT, Weiss KB, Owens DK. Glycemic control and type 2 diabetes mellitus: the optimal hemoglobin A1c targets. A guidance statement from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. Sep 18 2007;147(6):417-22. [Medline].

  148. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the management of diabetes mellitus. Glycemic management. Available at http://guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=11094.

  149. Boussageon R, Bejan-Angoulvant T, Saadatian-Elahi M, et al. Effect of intensive glucose lowering treatment on all cause mortality, cardiovascular death, and microvascular events in type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. Jul 26 2011;343:d4169. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  150. Klonoff DC, Buckingham B, Christiansen JS, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Oct 2011;96(10):2968-79. [Medline].

  151. Wheeler ML, Dunbar SA, Jaacks LM, et al. Macronutrients, Food Groups, and Eating Patterns in the Management of Diabetes: A systematic review of the literature, 2010. Diabetes Care. Feb 2012;35(2):434-45. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  152. Hu EA, Pan A, Malik V, Sun Q. White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis and systematic review. BMJ. Mar 15 2012;344:e1454. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  153. Larson-Meyer DE, Newcomer BR, Ravussin E, et al. Intrahepatic and intramyocellular lipids are determinants of insulin resistance in prepubertal children. Diabetologia. Apr 2011;54(4):869-75. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  154. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, et al. Benefits of Modest Weight Loss in Improving Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Overweight and Obese Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1481-1486. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  155. [Best Evidence] Esposito K, Maiorino MI, Ciotola M, Di Palo C, Scognamiglio P, Gicchino M, et al. Effects of a Mediterranean-style diet on the need for antihyperglycemic drug therapy in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. Sep 1 2009;151(5):306-14. [Medline].

  156. Larsen RN, Mann NJ, Maclean E, Shaw JE. The effect of high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a 12 month randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia. Apr 2011;54(4):731-40. [Medline].

  157. Bassil M, Burgos S, Marliss EB, et al. Hyperaminoacidaemia at postprandial levels does not modulate glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. Jul 2011;54(7):1810-8. [Medline].

  158. Lazo M, Solga SF, Horska A, Bonekamp S, Diehl AM, Brancati FL, et al. Effect of a 12-month intensive lifestyle intervention on hepatic steatosis in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Oct 2010;33(10):2156-63. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  159. Mozaffarian D, Cao H, King IB, Lemaitre RN, Song X, Siscovick DS, et al. Trans-palmitoleic acid, metabolic risk factors, and new-onset diabetes in U.S. adults: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. Dec 21 2010;153(12):790-9. [Medline].

  160. Uribarri J, Cai W, Ramdas M, et al. Restriction of Advanced Glycation End Products Improves Insulin Resistance in Human Type 2 Diabetes: Potential role of AGER1 and SIRT1. Diabetes Care. Jul 2011;34(7):1610-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  161. Reeds DN, Patterson BW, Okunade A, et al. Ginseng and Ginsenoside Re Do Not Improve {beta}-Cell Function or Insulin Sensitivity in Overweight and Obese Subjects With Impaired Glucose Tolerance or Diabetes. Diabetes Care. May 2011;34(5):1071-6. [Medline].

  162. Clerici C, Nardi E, Battezzati PM, et al. Novel soy germ pasta improves endothelial function, blood pressure, and oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Sep 2011;34(9):1946-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  163. Umpierre D, Ribeiro PA, Kramer CK, et al. Physical activity advice only or structured exercise training and association with HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. May 4 2011;305(17):1790-9. [Medline].

  164. Lee SH, Kim JH, Kang MJ, et al. Implications of nocturnal hypertension in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Oct 2011;34(10):2180-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  165. Balducci S, Zanuso S, Nicolucci A, De Feo P, Cavallo S, Cardelli P, et al. Effect of an intensive exercise intervention strategy on modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial: the Italian Diabetes and Exercise Study (IDES). Arch Intern Med. Nov 8 2010;170(20):1794-803. [Medline].

  166. Church TS, Blair SN, Cocreham S, Johannsen N, Johnson W, Kramer K, et al. Effects of aerobic and resistance training on hemoglobin A1c levels in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. Nov 24 2010;304(20):2253-62. [Medline].

  167. Chudyk A, Petrella RJ. Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Type 2 Diabetes: A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. May 2011;34(5):1228-37. [Medline].

  168. [Best Evidence] Loimaala A, Groundstroem K, Rinne M, Nenonen A, Huhtala H, Parkkari J, et al. Effect of long-term endurance and strength training on metabolic control and arterial elasticity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol. Apr 1 2009;103(7):972-7. [Medline].

  169. Hegde SV, Adhikari P, Kotian S, et al. Effect of 3-Month Yoga on Oxidative Stress in Type 2 Diabetes With or Without Complications: A controlled clinical trial. Diabetes Care. Oct 2011;34(10):2208-10. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  170. Cigolle CT, Lee PG, Langa KM, Lee YY, Tian Z, Blaum CS. Geriatric conditions develop in middle-aged adults with diabetes. J Gen Intern Med. Mar 2011;26(3):272-9. [Medline].

  171. Schernhammer E, Hansen J, Rugbjerg K, Wermuth L, Ritz B. Diabetes and the risk of developing Parkinson's disease in denmark. Diabetes Care. May 2011;34(5):1102-8. [Medline].

  172. Cereda E, Barichella M, Pedrolli C, et al. Diabetes and Risk of Parkinson's Disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. Dec 2011;34(12):2614-23. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  173. Chen HF, Chen P, Li CY. Risk of Malignant Neoplasm of the Pancreas in Relation to Diabetes: A population-based study in Taiwan. Diabetes Care. May 2011;34(5):1177-9. [Medline].

  174. Kanaya AM, Adler N, Moffet HH, et al. Heterogeneity of Diabetes Outcomes Among Asians and Pacific Islanders in the U.S.: The Diabetes Study of Northern California (DISTANCE). Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):930-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  175. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ. Sep 12 1998;317(7160):703-13. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  176. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, Dahlöf B, Elmfeldt D, Julius S, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. HOT Study Group. Lancet. Jun 13 1998;351(9118):1755-62. [Medline].

  177. Anderson RJ, Bahn GD, Moritz TE, Kaufman D, Abraira C, Duckworth W. Blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk in the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial. Diabetes Care. Jan 2011;34(1):34-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  178. Bruno RM, Penno G, Daniele G, Pucci L, Lucchesi D, Stea F, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus worsens arterial stiffness in hypertensive patients through endothelial dysfunction. Diabetologia. Mar 13 2012;[Medline].

  179. Fogari R, Mugellini A, Destro M, et al. Losartan and amlodipine on myocardial structure and function: a prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Diabet Med. Jan 2012;29(1):24-31. [Medline].

  180. Hermida RC, Ayala DE, Mojón A, Fernandez JR. Influence of time of day of blood pressure-lowering treatment on cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1270-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  181. Barzilay JI, Gao P, Ryden L, et al. Effects of Telmisartan on Glucose Levels in People at High Risk for Cardiovascular Disease but Free From Diabetes: The TRANSCEND study. Diabetes Care. Sep 2011;34(9):1902-1907. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  182. Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jan 2000;23 Suppl 1:S57-60. [Medline].

  183. Davis TM, Ting R, Best JD, Donoghoe MW, Drury PL, Sullivan DR, et al. Effects of fenofibrate on renal function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) Study. Diabetologia. Feb 2011;54(2):280-90. [Medline].

  184. [Best Evidence] Bell DS, Bakris GL, McGill JB. Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on serum lipid concentration in diabetic hypertensive patients. Diabetes Obes Metab. Mar 2009;11(3):234-8. [Medline].

  185. Aspirin therapy in diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jan 2000;23 Suppl 1:S61-2. [Medline].

  186. [Best Evidence] Ogawa H, Nakayama M, Morimoto T, Uemura S, Kanauchi M, Doi N, et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of atherosclerotic events in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. Nov 12 2008;300(18):2134-41. [Medline].

  187. Saito Y, Morimoto T, Ogawa H, Nakayama M, Uemura S, Doi N, et al. Low-dose aspirin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes and reduced glomerular filtration rate: subanalysis from the JPAD trial. Diabetes Care. Feb 2011;34(2):280-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  188. Okada S, Morimoto T, Ogawa H, et al. Differential Effect of Low-Dose Aspirin for Primary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Events in Diabetes Management: A subanalysis of the JPAD trial. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1277-1283. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  189. Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet. Nov 19 1994;344(8934):1383-9. [Medline].

  190. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. Jul 6 2002;360(9326):7-22. [Medline].

  191. Preiss D, Seshasai SR, Welsh P, et al. Risk of incident diabetes with intensive-dose compared with moderate-dose statin therapy: a meta-analysis. JAMA. Jun 22 2011;305(24):2556-64. [Medline].

  192. Culver AL, Ockene IS, Balasubramanian R, et al. Statin Use and Risk of Diabetes Mellitus in Postmenopausal Women in the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med. Jan 23 2012;172(2):144-52. [Medline].

  193. Sever PS, Dahlöf B, Poulter NR, Wedel H, Beevers G, Caulfield M, et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial--Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Apr 5 2003;361(9364):1149-58. [Medline].

  194. Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, Hitman GA, Neil HA, Livingstone SJ, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. Aug 21-27 2004;364(9435):685-96. [Medline].

  195. Haller H, Ito S, Izzo JL Jr, Januszewicz A, Katayama S, Menne J, et al. Olmesartan for the delay or prevention of microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. Mar 10 2011;364(10):907-17. [Medline].

  196. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, Fye CL, Anderson JW, Elam MB, et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. Aug 5 1999;341(6):410-8. [Medline].

  197. Frye RL, August P, Brooks MM, Hardison RM, Kelsey SF, MacGregor JM, et al. A randomized trial of therapies for type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. Jun 11 2009;360(24):2503-15. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  198. Agardh E, Tababat-Khani P. Adopting 3-year screening intervals for sight-threatening retinal vascular lesions in type 2 diabetic subjects without retinopathy. Diabetes Care. Jun 2011;34(6):1318-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  199. [Best Evidence] Sjølie AK, Klein R, Porta M, Orchard T, Fuller J, Parving HH, et al. Effect of candesartan on progression and regression of retinopathy in type 2 diabetes (DIRECT-Protect 2): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. Oct 18 2008;372(9647):1385-93. [Medline].

  200. Oshitari T, Asaumi N, Watanabe M, Kumagai K, Mitamura Y. Severe macular edema induced by pioglitazone in a patient with diabetic retinopathy: a case study. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2008;4(5):1137-40. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  201. Barchetta I, Riccieri V, Vasile M, et al. High prevalence of capillary abnormalities in patients with diabetes and association with retinopathy. Diabet Med. Sep 2011;28(9):1039-44. [Medline].

  202. Mohamed Q, Gillies MC, Wong TY. Management of diabetic retinopathy: a systematic review. JAMA. Aug 22 2007;298(8):902-16. [Medline].

  203. Frank RN. Diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med. Jan 1 2004;350(1):48-58. [Medline].

  204. Ding J, Strachan MW, Fowkes FG, et al. Association of retinal arteriolar dilatation with lower verbal memory: the Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study. Diabetologia. Jul 2011;54(7):1653-62. [Medline].

  205. Hujoel PP, Stott-Miller M. Retinal and gingival hemorrhaging and chronic hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care. Jan 2011;34(1):181-3. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  206. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Requires Boxed Warning and Risk Mitigation Strategy for Metoclopramide-Containing Drugs. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available at http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm149533.htm. Accessed August 4, 2010.

  207. Chou KL, Galetta SL, Liu GT, Volpe NJ, Bennett JL, Asbury AK, et al. Acute ocular motor mononeuropathies: prospective study of the roles of neuroimaging and clinical assessment. J Neurol Sci. Apr 15 2004;219(1-2):35-9. [Medline].

  208. Handzel O, Halperin D. Necrotizing (malignant) external otitis. Am Fam Physician. Jul 15 2003;68(2):309-12. [Medline].

  209. O'Neill BM, Alessi AS, George EB, Piro J. Disseminated rhinocerebral mucormycosis: a case report and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. Feb 2006;64(2):326-33. [Medline].

  210. Mokabberi R, Ravakhah K. Emphysematous urinary tract infections: diagnosis, treatment and survival (case review series). Am J Med Sci. Feb 2007;333(2):111-6. [Medline].

  211. Newman LG, Waller J, Palestro CJ, Schwartz M, Klein MJ, Hermann G, et al. Unsuspected osteomyelitis in diabetic foot ulcers. Diagnosis and monitoring by leukocyte scanning with indium in 111 oxyquinoline. JAMA. Sep 4 1991;266(9):1246-51. [Medline].

  212. Kapoor A, Page S, Lavalley M, Gale DR, Felson DT. Magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosing foot osteomyelitis: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. Jan 22 2007;167(2):125-32. [Medline].

  213. Leegaard A, Riis A, Kornum JB, et al. Diabetes, Glycemic Control, and Risk of Tuberculosis: A population-based case-control study. Diabetes Care. Dec 2011;34(12):2530-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  214. [Best Evidence] Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ. Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA. Aug 27 2008;300(8):933-44. [Medline].

  215. Dixon JB, Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Rubino F. Bariatric surgery: an IDF statement for obese Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. Jun 2011;28(6):628-42. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  216. Eckel RH, Kahn SE, Ferrannini E, et al. Obesity and type 2 diabetes: what can be unified and what needs to be individualized?. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Jun 2011;96(6):1654-63. [Medline].

  217. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. Feb 7 2002;346(6):393-403. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  218. Vanderwood KK, Hall TO, Harwell TS, Butcher MK, Helgerson SD. Implementing a state-based cardiovascular disease and diabetes prevention program. Diabetes Care. Dec 2010;33(12):2543-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  219. Xiang AH, Hodis HN, Kawakubo M, Peters RK, Kjos SL, Marroquin A, et al. Effect of pioglitazone on progression of subclinical atherosclerosis in non-diabetic premenopausal Hispanic women with prior gestational diabetes. Atherosclerosis. Jul 2008;199(1):207-14. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  220. Reis JP, Loria CM, Sorlie PD, et al. Lifestyle factors and risk for new-onset diabetes: a population-based cohort study. Ann Intern Med. Sep 6 2011;155(5):292-9. [Medline].

  221. [Guideline] Goldstein LB, Bushnell CD, Adams RJ, Appel LJ, Braun LT, Chaturvedi S, et al. Guidelines for the Primary Prevention of Stroke. A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. Dec 6 2010;[Medline].

  222. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Hunt JA, Palmason C, Rodger NW, Ross SA, et al. The efficacy of acarbose in the treatment of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A multicenter controlled clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. Dec 15 1994;121(12):928-35. [Medline].

  223. Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Bosch J, Pogue J, Sheridan P, Dinccag N, et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Sep 23 2006;368(9541):1096-105. [Medline].

  224. [Best Evidence] Bosch J, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, Sheridan P, Dagenais G, et al. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med. Oct 12 2006;355(15):1551-62. [Medline].

  225. National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse. Insulin Resistance and Pre-diabetes. Available at http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/insulinresistance/#medicines.

  226. [Best Evidence] Yeh HC, Duncan BB, Schmidt MI, Wang NY, Brancati FL. Smoking, smoking cessation, and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. Jan 5 2010;152(1):10-7. [Medline].

  227. Jones TH, Arver S, Behre HM, et al. Testosterone Replacement in Hypogonadal Men With Type 2 Diabetes and/or Metabolic Syndrome (the TIMES2 Study). Diabetes Care. Apr 2011;34(4):828-37. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  228. Dong JY, Xun P, He K, Qin LQ. Magnesium Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Care. Sep 2011;34(9):2116-22. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  229. Queale WS, Seidler AJ, Brancati FL. Glycemic control and sliding scale insulin use in medical inpatients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. Mar 10 1997;157(5):545-52. [Medline].

  230. Sawin CT. Action without benefit. The sliding scale of insulin use. Arch Intern Med. Mar 10 1997;157(5):489. [Medline].

  231. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, Blair D, Foster D, Dhingra V, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. Mar 26 2009;360(13):1283-97. [Medline].

  232. Malmberg K. Prospective randomised study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. BMJ. May 24 1997;314(7093):1512-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  233. Malmberg K, Rydén L, Wedel H, Birkeland K, Bootsma A, Dickstein K, et al. Intense metabolic control by means of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI 2): effects on mortality and morbidity. Eur Heart J. Apr 2005;26(7):650-61. [Medline].

  234. Mellbin LG, Malmberg K, Norhammar A, Wedel H, Rydén L. Prognostic implications of glucose-lowering treatment in patients with acute myocardial infarction and diabetes: experiences from an extended follow-up of the Diabetes Mellitus Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction (DIGAMI) 2 Study. Diabetologia. Jun 2011;54(6):1308-17. [Medline].

  235. Bolen S, Feldman L, Vassy J, Wilson L, Yeh HC, Marinopoulos S, et al. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and safety of oral medications for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. Sep 18 2007;147(6):386-99. [Medline].

  236. Cefalu WT. Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: rationale and specific agents. Clin Pharmacol Ther. May 2007;81(5):636-49. [Medline].

  237. Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Sweet DE, Starkey M, Shekelle P. Oral Pharmacologic Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. Feb 7 2012;156(3):218-231. [Medline].

  238. Buse JB, Ginsberg HN, Bakris GL, Clark NG, Costa F, Eckel R, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in people with diabetes mellitus: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. Jan 2007;30(1):162-72. [Medline].

  239. Ekinci EI, Clarke S, Thomas MC, Moran JL, Cheong K, Macisaac RJ, et al. Dietary salt intake and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. Mar 2011;34(3):703-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  240. Falcone C, Nespoli L, Geroldi D, Gazzaruso C, Buzzi MP, Auguadro C, et al. Silent myocardial ischemia in diabetic and nondiabetic patients with coronary artery disease. Int J Cardiol. Aug 2003;90(2-3):219-27. [Medline].

  241. Home PD, Pocock SJ, Beck-Nielsen H, Curtis PS, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, et al. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial. Lancet. Jun 20 2009;373(9681):2125-35. [Medline].

  242. Iaconelli A, Panunzi S, De Gaetano A, Manco M, Guidone C, Leccesi L, et al. Effects of Bilio-Pancreatic Diversion on Diabetic Complications: A 10-year follow-up. Diabetes Care. Mar 2011;34(3):561-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  243. Jenkins DJ, Srichaikul K, Kendall CW, Sievenpiper JL, Abdulnour S, Mirrahimi A, et al. The relation of low glycaemic index fruit consumption to glycaemic control and risk factors for coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. Feb 2011;54(2):271-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  244. Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Deery HG, Embil JM, Joseph WS, Karchmer AW, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 1 2004;39(7):885-910. [Medline].

  245. National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/hypertension/jnc7full.htm. Accessed August 4, 2009.

  246. Pannu N, Wiebe N, Tonelli M. Prophylaxis strategies for contrast-induced nephropathy. JAMA. Jun 21 2006;295(23):2765-79. [Medline].

  247. Peters A, Laffel L. Diabetes Care for Emerging Adults: Recommendations for Transition From Pediatric to Adult Diabetes Care Systems: A position statement of the American Diabetes Association, with representation by the American College of Osteopathic Family Physicians, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the American Osteopathic Association, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Children with Diabetes, The Endocrine Society, the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes, Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International, the National Diabetes Education Program, and the Pediatric Endocrine Society (formerly Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society). Diabetes Care. Nov 2011;34(11):2477-2485. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  248. Preventive foot care in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care. Jan 2000;23 Suppl 1:S55-6. [Medline].

  249. Singh N, Armstrong DG, Lipsky BA. Preventing foot ulcers in patients with diabetes. JAMA. Jan 12 2005;293(2):217-28. [Medline].

  250. Strippoli GF, Bonifati C, Craig M, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists for preventing the progression of diabetic kidney disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Oct 18 2006;CD006257. [Medline].

  251. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med. Sep 30 1993;329(14):977-86. [Medline].

  252. Vinik AI, Mehrabyan A. Diabetic neuropathies. Med Clin North Am. Jul 2004;88(4):947-99, xi. [Medline].

  253. Vinik AI, Ziegler D. Diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy. Circulation. Jan 23 2007;115(3):387-97. [Medline].

 
Previous
Next
 
Simplified scheme for the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Prevalence of diabetes mellitus type 2 in various racial and ethnic groups in the United States (2007 estimates).
Prevalence of diabetes mellitus type 2 by age in the United States (2007 estimates).
Possible physical examination findings in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Diagnostic criteria (American Diabetes Association) for diabetes mellitus type 2.
Major findings from the primary glucose study in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS).
Results from metformin substudy in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS).
Findings from the blood pressure substudy in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS).
Laboratory monitoring guidelines for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
American Diabetes Association guidelines for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in diabetes mellitus type 2.
Treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Types of insulin. Premixed insulins can be assumed to have a combination of the onset, peak, and duration of the individual components.
Simplified scheme for using insulin in treating patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Simplified scheme of idealized blood glucose values and multiple dose insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus.
 
 
 
All material on this website is protected by copyright, Copyright © 1994-2012 by WebMD LLC.
This website also contains material copyrighted by 3rd parties.

DISCLAIMER: The content of this Website is not influenced by sponsors. The site is designed primarily for use by qualified physicians and other medical professionals. The information contained herein should NOT be used as a substitute for the advice of an appropriately qualified and licensed physician or other health care provider. The information provided here is for educational and informational purposes only. In no way should it be considered as offering medical advice. Please check with a physician if you suspect you are ill.