eMedicine Specialties > Endocrinology > Thyroid

Goiter, Nontoxic

Author: Stephanie L Lee, MD, PhD, Fellow, Association of Clinical Endocrinology; Director of Thyroid Nodule and Cancer Center, Associate Chief, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Boston Medical Center; Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine
Coauthor(s): Sonia Ananthakrishnan, MD, Attending Physician, Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Boston University School of Medicine/Boston Medical Center
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: May 5, 2009

Introduction

Background

A nontoxic goiter is a diffuse or nodular enlargement of the thyroid gland that does not result from an inflammatory or neoplastic process and is not associated with abnormal thyroid function. Endemic goiter is defined as thyroid enlargement that occurs in more than 10% of a population, and sporadic goiter is a result of environmental or genetic factors that do not affect the general population. (See image below and Image 1.)

Pathophysiology

The histopathology varies with etiology and age of the goiter. Initially, uniform follicular epithelial hyperplasia (diffuse goiter) is present, with an increase in thyroid mass. As the disorder persists, the thyroid architecture loses uniformity, with the development of areas of involution and fibrosis interspersed with areas of focal hyperplasia. This process results in multiple nodules (multinodular goiter). On nuclear scintigraphy, some nodules are hot, with high isotope uptake (autonomous) or cold, with low isotope uptake, compared with the normal thyroid tissue (see images below and Images 2-3). The development of nodules correlates with the development of functional autonomy and reduction in thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels. Clinically, the natural history of a nontoxic goiter is growth, nodule production, and functional autonomy (resulting in thyrotoxicosis in a minority of patients).

Frequency

United States

Iodine comes from ingestion of food. Iodine content of the soil determines the iodine content of plants and animals. Iodine is washed from the soil by water and is eventually washed out to the oceans. In general, areas with mountain ranges or heavy rainfall and flooding are iodine deficient. Iodine deficiency occurs in populations that depend on locally grown food and rely on vegetable protein rather than on animal or fish protein.

Studies have shown that iodine supplementation can eliminate cretinism and is highly effective in the prevention of endemic goiter. When urinary iodide falls below 25 micrograms per gram of creatinine, a palpable goiter occurs in 40-90% of the population, hypothyroidism occurs in 30-50% of the population, and cretinism occurs in 1-10% of the population. The seminal studies by David Marine, MD, in 1917 demonstrated the reduction in goiter among adolescent girls in Ohio from 20% to 5% by iodine supplementation.

Table salt has been supplemented in the United States since the 1920s for the prevention of cretinism and endemic goiter. The iodine intake in the United States, according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III (NHANES III), is adequate at 145 mcg/mg of creatinine. This adequate iodine intake in the United States eliminates the most common cause of endemic goiter in most populations.

Sporadic goiter is the most common cause of nontoxic goiter in the United States. The incidence of sporadic nontoxic goiter has been estimated in North America at approximately 5%. Sporadic goiter does not usually occur in people before puberty, and it does not have a peak incidence. Generally, the development of palpable thyroid nodules and goiter progressively increases with age. The prevalence of palpable nodules is approximately 5-6% in people aged 60 years, but on autopsy and ultrasonographic imaging findings, the incidence of small, nonpalpable nodules approaches 50% in people aged 60 years.

International

More than 2.2 billion people worldwide have some form of iodine deficiency disorder. Twenty-nine percent of the world's population lives in a region that has iodine deficiency (primarily in Asia, Latin American, central Africa, and regions of Europe). Of those at risk, 655 million were known to have goiter. In the iodine-deficient regions of the world, goiter is more common than in the United States. The prevalence of goiter can be estimated based on the iodine intake of the population. 

As reported by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (ICCIDD), the absence of iodine deficiency (ie, median urine iodine >100 mg/dL) is associated with a goiter prevalence of less than 5%; mild iodine deficiency (ie, median urine iodine 50-99 mg/dL), with a goiter prevalence of 5-20%; moderate iodine deficiency (ie, median urine iodine 20-49 mg/dL), with a goiter prevalence of 20-30%; and severe iodine deficiency (ie, median urine iodine 20-49 mg/dL), with a goiter prevalence of greater than 30%.

Mortality/Morbidity

Endemic goiters arising from iodine deficiency are associated with sometimes immense thyroid hypertrophy, hypothyroidism, and cretinism. Sporadic goiters are generally asymptomatic and found either by a clinician's physical examination or by the patient's observation of neck enlargement. Occasionally, the goiter may produce symptoms caused by pressure on anterior neck structures, including the trachea (wheezing, cough, globus hystericus [anterior neck pressure]), the esophagus (dysphagia), and the recurrent laryngeal nerve (hoarseness).

Rarely, the obstruction can be dangerous because of narrowing of the trachea and the development of tracheitis with edema and tracheomalacia, leading to severe narrowing of the airway with serious obstruction resulting in a respiratory emergency (see images below and Images 4-5).

Race

No convincing epidemiologic studies suggest that race plays an important role in the development of nontoxic goiter. Generally, the lower socioeconomic conditions in nonindustrialized countries resulting in iodine deficiency have a more important role than race does in the development of a goiter.

Sex

Diffuse and nodular goiter is more common in women than in men. According to the best estimate, the incidence of goiter in women is 1.2-4.3 times as great as that in men.

Age

Sporadic goiter from dyshormonogenesis, a genetic error in proteins that are necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis, occurs during childhood. Endemic goiter due to iodine deficiency occurs during childhood, with the goiter's size increasing with age. Other causes of sporadic goiter rarely occur before puberty and do not have a peak age of occurrence. Thyroid nodules increase in incidence with age.

Clinical

History

The thyroid gland usually grows outward because of its location anterior to the trachea (see first image below and Image 6). Occasionally, the thyroid wraps around and compresses the trachea and/or esophagus or extends inferiorly into the anterior mediastinum (see second image below and Image 4).

• Growth pattern
  • Determining whether the goiter has been present for many years and whether a change has occurred in the recent past is important.
  • Recent or accelerated growth of a discrete nodule or thyroid lobe should raise the suspicion of malignancy.
  • Goiters rarely are painful or grow quickly unless recent hemorrhage into a nodule has occurred.
• Obstructive symptoms
  • Tracheal compression is generally asymptomatic until critical narrowing has occurred (see Image 4).
  • Patients develop dyspnea and stridor, especially with exertion. In patients with intrathoracic goiter, the dyspnea and stridor may be nocturnal or positional (ie, occurring when the patient's arms are raised) when the thoracic outlet is narrowed.
  • Hemorrhage into a nodule or cyst or development of bronchitis may acutely worsen the respiratory symptoms in a patient with tracheal narrowing.
  • The esophagus is more posterior in the neck, and a goiter occasionally extends posteriorly and causes solid food and pill dysphagia.
  • Compression of the recurrent laryngeal nerve with vocal cord dysfunction may cause hoarseness. The superior laryngeal nerve controls the pitch of the voice. An expanding goiter may cause a change in the character of the voice, especially in individuals who use their voice extensively (eg, in certain occupations).
  • Compression of the venous outflow through the thoracic inlet by a mediastinal goiter results in facial plethora and dilated neck and upper thoracic veins (see image below and Image 1). 
• Iodine intake - Obtain a careful diet history for iodine deficiency, iodine excess from medications (eg, amiodarone), health food store supplements, or seaweed.
• History of radiation - Record any history of head and neck radiation exposure, especially during childhood, which significantly increases the risk of thyroid malignancy and of other thyroid abnormalities.
• Family history - Family history is very important in the evaluation of the patient with goiter. Investigate inherited forms of dyshormonogenesis in the pediatric patient, as well as familial papillary carcinoma of the thyroid and familial forms of medullary thyroid cancer (multiple endocrine neoplasia and familial medullary carcinoma of the thyroid).

Physical

Pertinent physical findings are limited to the evaluation of the shape, asymmetry, size, and consistency of nontoxic goiters; lymphadenopathy; and assessment of thyroid function.

• The thyroid evaluation starts with inspection of the neck for thyroid enlargement. Often, the thyroid enlargement can be detected only when the patient swallows.
  • The thyroid isthmus is usually located at or just below the level of the cricoid cartilage of the trachea. The lobes of the thyroid extend laterally and, if enlarged, may extend posterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscles. Up to 80% of thyroid glands may have a pyramidal lobe extending superiorly from the isthmus.
  • Assess the gland for overall size; in the United States, the normal weight is 15-20 grams.
  • Assess the thyroid for asymmetry and determine whether a dominant nodule is present in an overall nodular goiter or whether a solitary nodule is present in an otherwise normal gland. Evaluate dominant nodules that are bigger than 1-1.5 cm or a solitary nodule of the same size by a thin-needle aspiration biopsy.¹ Diffuse or nodular goiters without a dominant nodule do not require a biopsy for evaluation. 
• Obstruction
  • Examine patients with dyspnea and cough, especially with exertion, for tracheal obstruction. Note any tracheal deviation from midline.
  • The patient's voice is assessed for hoarseness.
  • Venous outflow obstruction of the head and neck can be elicited by the Pemberton maneuver by raising the patient’s arms above the head until they touch the sides of the head for 1 minute. A positive finding occurs with facial plethora or engorgement of the neck veins. 
• Physical assessment of thyroid dysfunction
  • Examine patients for signs of thyroid dysfunction.
  • Hypothyroidism is indicated by a sallow complexion, dysarthric speech, mental slowing, weight gain without change in appetite, cold intolerance, constipation, hypersomnia, and delayed relaxation of deep tendon reflexes.
  • Hyperthyroidism is indicated by tachycardia, atrial arrhythmia (eg, atrial fibrillation), diaphoresis, weight loss without change in appetite, heat intolerance, hyperdefecation, palmar erythema, lid lag, tremor, and brisk reflexes.
• Lymphadenopathy - Carefully examine the neck to identify any lymphadenopathy.

Causes

The most common worldwide cause of endemic nontoxic goiter is iodine deficiency. However, in patients with sporadic goiter, the cause is usually unknown. Nontoxic goiters have many etiologies, including the following:

• Iodine deficiency - Goiter formation occurs with moderately deficient iodine intake of less than 50 mcg/d. Severe iodine deficiency associated with intake of less than 25 mcg/d is associated with hypothyroidism and cretinism.
• Iodine excess - Goiter formation due to iodine excess is rare and usually occurs in the setting of preexisting autoimmune thyroid disease.
• Goitrogens
  • Drugs - Propylthiouracil, lithium, phenylbutazone, aminoglutethimide, iodine-containing expectorants
  • Environmental agents - Phenolic and phthalate ester derivatives and resorcinol found downstream of coal and shale mines
  • Foods - Vegetables of the genus Brassica (eg, cabbage, turnips, brussels sprouts, rutabagas), seaweed, millet, cassava, and goitrin in grass and weeds
• Dyshormonogenesis - A defect in the thyroid hormone biosynthetic pathway is inherited.
• Childhood head and neck radiation - Radiation exposure during childhood results in benign and malignant nodules.

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