Primary Hyperaldosteronism 

  • Author: Gabriel I Uwaifo, MBBS; Chief Editor: George T Griffing, MD   more...
 
Updated: Jan 3, 2012
 

Background

Although initially considered a rarity, primary hyperaldosteronism (PH) now is considered one of the more common causes of secondary hypertension (HTN). Litynski reported the first cases, but Conn was the first to well characterize the disorder in 1956. Conn syndrome, as originally described, refers specifically to PH secondary to an adrenal aldosteronoma.

While older data suggested that PH is rare, with an estimated prevalence of less than 1% of all patients with HTN, subsequent data indicated that it may actually occur in as many as 5-15% of patients with HTN. It may occur in an even greater percentage of patients with treatment-resistant HTN. Although still a considerable diagnostic challenge, recognizing this condition is critical because PH-associated HTN can often be cured with the proper surgical intervention. The diagnosis is generally 3-tiered, involving an initial screening, a confirmation of the diagnosis, and a determination of the specific subtype of PH.

Although prior studies suggested that aldosteronomas are the most common causes of PH (70-80% of cases), later epidemiologic work indicated that the prevalence of PH due to bilateral idiopathic adrenal hyperplasia (IAH) is higher than was previously believed. These reports suggested that IAH may be responsible for as many as 75% of PH cases. Moreover, reports have described a rare syndrome of PH characterized by histologic features intermediate between adrenal adenoma and adrenal hyperplasia. Clinically, the distinction between the 2 major causes of PH is vital because the treatment of choice for each is different. While the treatment of choice for aldosteronomas is surgical extirpation, the treatment of choice for IAH is medical therapy with aldosterone antagonists.

The complete list of entities known to cause PH includes aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs), aldosterone-producing renin-responsive adenomas (AP-RAs), bilateral adrenal (glomerulosa) hyperplasia or IAH, primary adrenal hyperplasia (PAH), and familial forms of PH. (The ovaries and kidneys are the 2 organs described in the literature that, in the setting of neoplastic disease, can be ectopic sources of aldosterone, but this is a rare occurrence.)

Two distinct genetic-familial varieties of PH exist. Sutherland and colleagues first described the type 1 variety of familial PH, glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism (GRA), in 1966. In GRA, HTN responds clinically to small doses of glucocorticoids in addition to other antihypertensive agents (see image below).[1] The type 1 form of familial PH is due to a chimeric gene product that combines the promoter of the 11beta-hydroxylase gene with the coding region of the aldosterone synthetase gene. The type 2 variant of familial PH (which is not glucocorticoid sensitive) was first described in 1991. Although the exact genetic abnormality for type 2 PH has not been identified, data suggest that this type may be associated or closely linked with the MEN1 gene locus on band 11q13.[2]

Effects of main antihypertensives on the renin-angEffects of main antihypertensives on the renin-angiotensin system.
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Pathophysiology

The cardinal pathophysiologic anomaly causing primary hyperaldosteronism (PH) syndrome is autonomous aldosterone production. In addition to nonsuppressible aldosterone production, suppressed and poorly stimulative levels of plasma renin are in the presence of only mildly expanded intravascular and extravascular fluid volume. Normal regulation of aldosterone secretion is mediated to varying degrees by renin, serum potassium and sodium levels, intravascular volume status, and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Regulation of aldosterone production by these factors may be altered in a variable fashion, depending on the subtype of PH. Generally, APAs and PAH (see image below) remain ACTH responsive, while IAH and AP-RAs maintain responsiveness to the renin-angiotensin system (RAS).

Potential causes of primary hyperaldosteronism. Potential causes of primary hyperaldosteronism.

In GRA, the RAS is suppressed, and aldosterone is regulated by ACTH because of the chimeric genetic combination of an ACTH-sensitive promoter with the coding regions of the aldosterone synthetase gene (which normally does not have such a promoter). Thus, ambient ACTH levels pathologically overstimulate aldosterone synthesis inappropriately.[3] In patients with GRA, the administration of dexamethasone (or any other glucocorticoid) at doses sufficient to suppress ACTH production results in a reduction in aldosterone synthesis and natriuresis and in the correction of the biochemical anomalies of PH.[4] Histologic studies in this disease have shown specific hyperplasia of the zona fasciculata, with concomitant atrophy of the zona glomerulosa.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

The exact prevalence of primary hyperaldosteronism (PH) is unclear. PH appears to contribute more significantly than was previously thought to the prevalence of essential hypertension (HTN). Estimates suggest that 5-15% of essential HTN cases may be due to PH. The prevalence of PH is probably higher in patients who have a low serum potassium level, in patients who are elderly, and in patients who have HTN that is resistant to single medication use.

International

No evidence demonstrates that primary hyperaldosteronism, in its more common forms, occurs in relative excess in any part of the world.

Race

Primary hyperaldosteronism occurs worldwide. Several reports suggest a higher prevalence in African Americans, persons of African origin, and, potentially, other blacks. This appears particularly true of the IAH variant of the disease.

Sex

APAs are more common in women than in men, with a female-to-male ratio of 2:1. IAH is more common in men than in women, with a male-to-female ratio of 4:1.

Age

The typical patient with APA is a woman aged 30-50 years. Accumulating data for IAH suggest different demographics. IAH is more prevalent in men than in women and peaks in the sixth decade of life.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Gabriel I Uwaifo, MBBS  Clinical and Research Attending, Assistant Professor of Medicine and Endocrinology, MedStar Clinical Research Center, MedStar Research Institute and Washington Hospital Center

Gabriel I Uwaifo, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, American Society of Hypertension, and Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Nicholas J Sarlis, MBBS, MD, PhD, FACP,  Vice President, Medical Affairs, Incyte Corporation

Nicholas J Sarlis, MBBS, MD, PhD, FACP, is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Head and Neck Society, American Medical Association, American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology, American Society of Clinical Oncology, American Thyroid Association, Association for Psychological Science, Endocrine Society, European Society for Medical Oncology, New York Academy of Sciences, and Royal Society of Medicine

Disclosure: Incyte Corporation Salary Employment; Sanofi-Aventis Ownership interest Stock option/ restricted stock holder; Incyte Corporation Ownership interest Stock option/ restricted stock holder

Specialty Editor Board

Frederick H Ziel, MD  Associate Professor of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Physician-In-Charge, Endocrinology/Diabetes Center, Director of Medical Education, Kaiser Permanente Woodland Hills; Chair of Endocrinology, Co-Chair of Diabetes Complete Care Program, Southern California Permanente Medical Group

Frederick H Ziel, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Medical Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, California Medical Association, Endocrine Society, and International Society for Clinical Densitometry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Arthur B Chausmer, MD, PhD, FACP, FACE, FACN, CNS  Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology, Adj), Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Affiliate Research Professor, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, School of Computational Sciences, George Mason University; Principal, C/A Informatics, LLC

Arthur B Chausmer, MD, PhD, FACP, FACE, FACN, CNS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, American College of Nutrition, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Medical Informatics Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, Endocrine Society, and International Society for Clinical Densitometry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mark Cooper, MBBS, PhD, FRACP  Head, Diabetes & Metabolism Division, Baker Heart Research Institute, Professor of Medicine, Monash University

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

George T Griffing, MD  Professor of Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

George T Griffing, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Medical Practice Executives, American College of Physician Executives, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Heart Association, Central Society for Clinical Research, Endocrine Society, International Society for Clinical Densitometry, and Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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Effects of main antihypertensives on the renin-angiotensin system.
Potential causes of primary hyperaldosteronism.
Transitional zone adrenocortical steroids.
Algorithm for screening for potential primary hyperaldosteronism.
Algorithm for confirmation of primary hyperaldosteronism.
Algorithm for distinguishing subtypes of primary hyperaldosteronism.
 
 
 
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