Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome 

  • Author: Donald A Dibbern Jr, MD; Chief Editor: Michael A Kaliner, MD   more...
 
Updated: Apr 10, 2012
 

Background

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) is a condition with variable expression, but commonly includes immunoglobulin M (IgM) deficiency. WAS always causes persistent thrombocytopenia and, in its complete form, also causes small platelets, atopy, cellular and humoral immunodeficiency, and an increased risk of autoimmune disease and hematologic malignancy.[1] In one study of 154 patients with WAS, only 30% had a classic presentation with thrombocytopenia, small platelets, eczema, and immunodeficiency; although 84% had clinical signs and symptoms of thrombocytopenia, 20% had only hematologic abnormalities, 5% had only infectious manifestations, and none had eczema exclusively.[2] WAS is an X-linked recessive genetic condition; therefore, this disorder is found almost exclusively in boys. WAS has been the focus of intense molecular biology research, which recently led to the isolation of the affected gene product.[3]

Eczematous lesions in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. ThEczematous lesions in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. The lesion is essentially indistinguishable from that of atopic dermatitis except for the presence of purpura and petechiae.
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Pathophysiology

WAS results from an X-linked genetic defect in a protein now termed Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp). The gene resides on Xp11.22-23, and its expression is limited to cells of hematopoietic lineage.[3] The exact function of WASp is not fully elucidated, but it seems to function as a bridge between signaling and movement of the actin filaments in the cytoskeleton. Researchers identified many different mutations[4] that interfere with the protein binding to Cdc42 and Rac GTPases, among other binding partners, most of which are involved in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton of lymphocytes.[3] This ultrastructural component of cellular architecture is involved fundamentally in intracellular and cell substrate interactions and signaling via its role in cell morphology and movement. The actin cytoskeleton is responsible for cellular functions such as growth, endocytosis, exocytosis, and cytokinesis.

Researchers propose several models of actin assembly; this topic is an extremely active area of cell biology research.[5] Actin filament growth occurs by rapid monomer addition (polymerization) to the barbed leading end of a nucleated site. Nucleation, the rate-limiting step, is stimulated by a complex of actin-related protein Arp2/3 and WASp. Cdc42 GTPase also interacts with WASp to increase this nucleation. Next, gelsolin (activated by Ca++) severs actin filaments to create barbed ends, but then must be uncapped from the filament by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphonate and Rac to proceed with polymerization. WASp also interacts with Rac and, thus, is involved in regulation of this process at multiple interrelated sites.

WAS neutrophils have been reported to manifest abnormal NAD(P)H autofluorescence, indicating defective intracellular energy flux. Presumably, WASp mutations interfere with the proper signaling and growth of cells of the hematopoietic lineage, resulting in the platelet and immune defects observed clinically, although the exact mechanisms and defective pathways remain largely unknown.

Recently published research demonstrates that the Cdc42-WASp interaction is necessary for certain chemoattractant-induced T-cell chemotaxis.[6] Further studies have now demonstrated abnormal migration and motility in multiple key cellular components of the immune system (specifically, dendritic cells and neutrophils, as well as both B and T lymphocytes).[7, 8] With regard to WASp-deficient neutrophil adhesion and migration abnormalities, this may be caused by profound defects in clustering beta-2 integrins.[9] Also of note, CD43 (a major T-cell sialoglycoprotein) is located on microvilli; disruption of WASp regulation of cytoskeletal structure may be the cause of the CD43 defects often observed in patients with WAS.[10] WASp may also have a role in transcriptional signaling and regulation of NK cells, independent of its functions in cytoskeletal actin polymerization.[11]

Studies of genotype-phenotype correlation in WAS and closely related conditions, with detailed analyses of WASp expression, have now linked absent WASp expression to classic WAS, mutant WASp expression to X-linked thrombocytopenia, and WASp with missense mutations at the Cdc42-binding site to X-linked neutropenia.[12, 13, 14] Extensive study is also underway to further identify and characterize important WASp-associated proteins, such as WASp-interacting protein (WIP)[15, 16, 17, 18, 19] and several Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome proteins verprolin homologous (WAVE).[20, 21] New research suggests that N-WASp (neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein), a ubiquitously expressed homologue of WASp, may have some redundancy with WASp itself.[22]

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

Incidence is 4 cases per 1 million live male births, which remained relatively unchanged from 1947-1976.[23]

International

A study from Switzerland reported the incidence of WAS is 4.1 cases per 1 million live births. The same study also examined the prevalence of WAS in several national registries (ie, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, Sweden) and found that this condition occurred in 2-8.8% of patients with primary immunodeficiencies, although this statistic is subject to ascertainment bias.[24] A similar range has been documented in a national registry in Ireland, as well.[25]

Mortality/Morbidity

  • Median survival has increased from 8 months (patients born before 1935) to longer than 6 years (patients born after 1964).[23] In one case series, 94 surviving patients ranged in age from 1-35 years, with a median of 11 years; the average age of patients who died was 8 years.[2]
  • The cause of death is largely infections or bleeding, but, in one series, 12% of patients developed malignancies, primarily lymphoreticular tumors, and leukemia. In that series, the relative risk of malignancy was more than 100-fold that of normal and the risk increased with age.[23] Another study showed similar results, with the reported cause of death among patients who did not receive bone marrow transplants being infection (44%), bleeding (23%), or malignancy (26%).[2]
  • With aggressive care (eg, splenectomy), longer survival is possible.[26, 27] Bone marrow transplant can be curative.[26] Survival rates after stem cell transplant have continued to increase, particularly after more recent emphasis on performing these procedures as soon as possible after diagnosis.[28, 29]
  • Outcomes of hematopoietic cell transplantation have especially improved since 2000.[30]

Race

  • One large series of 301 confirmed and probable cases of WAS from 149 families reported that 8 families were black and 4 families were Chicano. Of the 40 families whose ancestry was traced outside North America, 38 emigrated from Europe.[23]

Sex

  • WAS is an X-linked recessive genetic disorder. The abnormal gene is relatively rare, and affected individuals often do not survive childhood.
  • WAS occurs almost exclusively in males, although it is also reported in females. One report of WAS in an 8-year-old girl found a WASp gene mutation on her paternal X chromosome associated with nonrandom inactivation of her maternal X chromosome.[31] Other closely related genetic abnormalities (such as WIP deficiency) have also been reported in females, with clinical features similar to WAS.[32]

Age

  • WAS is a severe congenital immunodeficiency; therefore, it occurs primarily in children. However, 2 large case series reported patients in their fourth decade of life.[23, 2]
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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Donald A Dibbern Jr, MD  Consulting Staff (Allergist), Providence St Vincent Medical Center

Donald A Dibbern Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, and Oregon Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

John M Routes, MD  Professor of Pediatrics, Medicine, Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Chief, Section of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin

John M Routes, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, American Society for Microbiology, American Society for Virology, Clinical Immunology Society, and Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Charles H Kirkpatrick  MD

Charles H Kirkpatrick is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Clinical Research, American Society for Clinical Investigation, and Clinical Immunology Society

Disclosure: Dyax Consulting fee Consulting

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Michael R Simon, MD, MA  Clinical Professor Emeritus, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Oakland University William Beaumont University School of Medicine; Adjunct Staff, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, William Beaumont Hospital

Michael R Simon, MD, MA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, Michigan Allergy and Asthma Society, Michigan State Medical Society, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, and Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

Disclosure: Secretory IgA, Inc. Ownership interest Management position

Timothy D Rice, MD  Associate Professor, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

Timothy D Rice, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics and American College of Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Michael A Kaliner, MD  Clinical Professor of Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine; Chief, Section of Allergy and Immunology, Washington Hospital Center; Medical Director, Institute for Asthma and Allergy

Michael A Kaliner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, American Society for Clinical Investigation, American Thoracic Society, and Association of American Physicians

Disclosure: Alcon Consulting fee Consulting; Teva Consulting fee Consulting; Meda Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Ista Consulting fee Consulting; sunovian Consulting fee Consulting; dey Honoraria Review panel membership

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Eczematous lesions in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. The lesion is essentially indistinguishable from that of atopic dermatitis except for the presence of purpura and petechiae.
 
 
 
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