eMedicine Specialties > Gastroenterology > Stomach

Gastritis, Chronic

Sandeep Mukherjee, MB, BCh, MPH, FRCPC, Associate Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Nebraska Medical Center; Consulting Staff, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center
Antonia R Sepulveda, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Pathology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; Director of Surgical Pathology, Director of Surgical Pathology Fellowship, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania; Maria P Dore, MD, Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Institute of Internal Medicine, University of Sassari, Italy; Franco Bazzoli, MD, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, University of Bologna, Italy

Updated: Aug 24, 2009

Introduction

Background

Chronic gastritis is a histopathologic entity characterized by chronic inflammation of the stomach mucosa. Gastritides can be classified based on the underlying etiologic agent (eg, Helicobacter pylori, bile reflux, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs], autoimmunity, allergic response) and the histopathologic pattern, which may suggest the etiologic agent and clinical course (eg, H pylori –associated multifocal atrophic gastritis).

Helicobacter pylori-caused chronic active gastritis. Genta stain (20X). Multiple organisms (brown) are visibly adherent to gastric surface epithelial cells.

Chronic gastritis associated with Helicobacter pylori infection. Numerous plasma cells in the lamina propria.

Granulomatous chronic gastritis. Noncaseating granulomas in the lamina propria. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Chemical or reactive gastritis is caused by injury of the gastric mucosa by reflux of bile and pancreatic secretions into the stomach, but it can also be caused by exogenous substances, including NSAIDs, acetylsalicylic acid, chemotherapeutic agents, and alcohol.¹ These chemicals cause epithelial damage, erosions, and ulcers that are followed by regenerative hyperplasia detectable as foveolar hyperplasia, and damage to capillaries, with mucosal edema, hemorrhage, and increased smooth muscle in the lamina propria.

Chronic gastritis. Chemical gastropathy. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

No single classification of gastritis provides an entirely satisfactory description of all types of gastritis.³ However, an etiologic classification provides a direct target toward which therapy can be directed, and, for this reason, the etiologic classification is used in this article. In many instances, chronic gastritis is a relatively minor manifestation of diseases that predominantly manifest in other organs or manifest systemically, such as gastritis in individuals who are immunosuppressed.

Helicobacter gastritis is a primary infection of the stomach and is the most frequent cause of chronic gastritis. Cases of histologically documented chronic gastritis are diagnosed as chronic gastritis of undetermined etiology or gastritis of undetermined type when none of the findings reflect any of the described patterns of gastritis and a specific cause cannot be identified.

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of chronic gastritis complicating a systemic disease, such as hepatic cirrhosis, uremia, or another infection, is described in the relevant disease articles. The pathogenesis of the most common forms of gastritis is described as follows.

H pylori- associated chronic gastritis

H pylori are gram-negative rods that have the ability to colonize and infect the stomach. The bacteria survive within the mucous layer that covers the gastric surface epithelium and the upper portions of the gastric foveolae. The infection is usually acquired during childhood. Once the organism has been acquired, has passed through the mucous layer, and has become established at the luminal surface of the stomach, an intense inflammatory response of the underlying tissue develops.⁴

The presence of H pylori is associated with tissue damage and the histologic finding of both an active and chronic gastritis. The host response to H pylori and bacterial products is composed of T- and B-cell lymphocytes, denoting chronic gastritis, followed by infiltration of the lamina propria and gastric epithelium by polymorphonuclear leukocytes that eventually phagocytize the bacteria. The presence of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the gastric mucosa is diagnostic of active gastritis.

The interaction of H pylori with the surface mucosa results in the release of proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-8, which leads to recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and may begin the entire inflammatory process. Gastric epithelial cells express class II molecules, which may increase the inflammatory response by presenting H pylori antigens, leading to further cytokine release and more inflammation. High levels of cytokines, particularly tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-α)⁵ and multiple interleukins (eg, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10), are detected in the gastric mucosa of patients with H pylori gastritis.

Leukotriene levels are also quite elevated, especially leukotriene B4, which is synthesized by host neutrophils and is cytotoxic to gastric epithelium. This inflammatory response leads to functional changes in the stomach, depending on the areas of the stomach involved. When inflammation affects the gastric corpus, parietal cells are inhibited, leading to reduced acid secretion. Continued inflammation results in loss of parietal cells, and the reduction in acid secretion becomes permanent.

Antral inflammation alters the interplay between gastrin and somatostatin secretion, affecting G cells (gastrin-secreting cells) and D cells (somatostatin-secreting cells), respectively. Specifically, gastrin secretion is abnormal in individuals who are infected with H pylori, with an exaggerated meal-stimulated release of gastrin being the most prominent abnormality. When the infection is cured, neutrophil infiltration of the tissue quickly resolves, with slower resolution of the chronic inflammatory cells. Paralleling the slow resolution of the monocytic infiltrates, meal-stimulated gastrin secretion returns to normal.

Differences in virulence factors that characterize different strains of H pylori influence the clinical outcome of H pylori infection. People infected with H pylori strains that secrete the vacuolating toxin A (vacA) are more likely to develop peptic ulcers than people infected with strains that do not secrete this toxin. Another set of virulence factors is encoded by the H pylori pathogenicity island (PAI). The PAI contains the sequence for several genes and encodes the CAGA gene. Strains that produce CagA protein (CagA⁺) are associated with a greater risk of development of gastric carcinoma and peptic ulcers. However, infection with CagA^- strains also predisposes the person to these diseases.^6,7,8

H pylori- associated chronic gastritis progresses with the following 2 main topographic patterns that have different clinical consequences:

• Antral predominant gastritis is characterized by inflammation and is mostly limited to the antrum. Individuals with peptic ulcers usually demonstrate this pattern of gastritis.
• Multifocal atrophic gastritis is characterized by involvement of the corpus and gastric antrum with progressive development of gastric atrophy (loss of the gastric glands) and partial replacement of gastric glands by an intestinal-type epithelium (intestinal metaplasia). Individuals who develop gastric carcinoma and gastric ulcers usually demonstrate this pattern of gastritis.

Most of the people who are infected with H pylori do not develop significant clinical complications, and they remain carriers with asymptomatic chronic gastritis. Some individuals who carry additional risk factors may develop peptic ulcers, gastric mucosa–associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas, or gastric adenocarcinomas.

An increased duodenal acid load may precipitate and wash out bile salts, which normally inhibit the growth of H pylori. Progressive damage to the duodenum promotes gastric foveolar metaplasia, resulting in sites for H pylori growth and more inflammation. This cycle results in the increasing inability of the duodenal bulb to neutralize acid entering from the stomach until changes in duodenal bulb structure and function are sufficient for an ulcer to develop. H pylori can survive in areas of gastric metaplasia in the duodenum, contributing to the development of peptic ulcers.

MALT lymphomas may develop in association with chronic gastritis secondary to H pylori infection. The healthy stomach lacks organized lymphoid tissue, but, following infection with H pylori, lymphoid tissue is universally present. Acquisition of gastric lymphoid tissue is thought to be due to persistent antigen stimulation from byproducts of chronic infection with H pylori. The continuous presence of H pylori results in the persistence of MALT in the gastric mucosa, which eventually may progress to form low- and high-grade MALT lymphomas. MALT lymphomas are monoclonal proliferations of neoplastic B cells that have the ability to infiltrate gastric glands. Gastric MALT lymphomas typically are low-grade T-cell–dependent B-cell lymphomas, and the antigenic stimulus of gastric MALT lymphomas is thought to be H pylori.

Another complication of H pylori gastritis is the development of gastric carcinomas, especially in individuals who develop extensive atrophy and intestinal metaplasia of the gastric mucosa. Although the relationship between H pylori and gastritis is constant, only a small proportion of individuals infected with H pylori develop gastric cancer. The incidence of gastric cancer usually parallels the incidence of H pylori infection in countries with a high incidence of gastric cancer and is consistent with H pylori being the cause of the precursor lesion, chronic atrophic gastritis.

Persistence of the organisms and associated inflammation during long-standing infection is likely to permit the accumulation of mutations in the gastric epithelial cells' genome, leading to an increased risk of malignant transformation and progression to adenocarcinoma. Studies have provided evidence of the accumulation of mutations in the gastric epithelium secondary to oxidative DNA damage associated with chronic inflammatory byproducts and secondary to deficiency of DNA repair induced by chronic bacterial infection.

Although the role of H pylori in peptic ulcer disease is well established, the clinical role of the infection in nonulcer dyspepsia remains very controversial. H pylori eradication may be beneficial for symptom relief in a small proportion of patients, but routine H pylori testing and treatment in nonulcer dyspepsia is not currently widely accepted. Therefore, consider H pylori eradication strategies in patients with nonulcer dyspepsia on an individual patient-by-patient basis.

Infectious granulomatous gastritis

Granulomatous gastritis is a rare entity. Tuberculosis may affect the stomach and cause caseating granulomas. Fungi can also cause caseating granulomas and necrosis, a finding that is usually observed in patients who are immunosuppressed.

Granulomatous chronic gastritis. Noncaseating granulomas in the lamina propria. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection of the stomach is observed in patients with underlying immunosuppression. Histologically, typical intranuclear eosinophilic inclusions and, occasionally, smaller intracytoplasmic inclusions are found (see Image 5 or below). A patchy, mild inflammatory infiltrate is observed in the lamina propria. Viral inclusions are present in gastric epithelial cells and in endothelial or mesenchymal cells in the lamina propria. Severe necrosis may result in ulceration. Herpes simplex causes basophilic intranuclear inclusions in epithelial cells. Mycobacterial infections by Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare are characterized by diffuse infiltration of the lamina propria by histiocytes, which rarely form granulomas (see Image 4 or below).

Chronic gastritis. Typical cytomegalovirus inclusions in lamina propria capillary endothelial cells. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Chronic gastritis. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in gastric lamina propria macrophages. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

This type of gastritis is associated with serum antiparietal and anti-intrinsic factor (IF) antibodies. The gastric corpus undergoes progressive atrophy, IF deficiency occurs, and patients may develop pernicious anemia.

The development of chronic atrophic gastritis limited to corpus-fundus mucosa and marked diffuse atrophy of parietal and chief cells characterize autoimmune atrophic gastritis. Autoimmune gastritis is associated with serum antiparietal and anti-IF antibodies that cause IF deficiency, which, in turn, causes decreased availability of cobalamin and, eventually, pernicious anemia in some patients.

Autoantibodies are directed against at least 3 antigens, including IF, cytoplasmic (microsomal-canalicular), and plasma membrane antigens. Two types of IF antibodies are detected (ie, types I and II). Type I IF antibodies block the IF-cobalamin binding site, thus preventing the uptake of vitamin B-12. Cell-mediated immunity also contributes to the disease. T-cell lymphocytes infiltrate the gastric mucosa and contribute to epithelial cell destruction and resulting gastric atrophy. A recent study reported that gender, age, vitamin B12, folate, renal function, atrophic gastritis and the methylenetetrahydrofolate (MTHF) 677TT genotype were significant determinants of homocysteine levels, which were positively related to incident cardiovascular diseases.⁹

Chronic reactive chemical gastropathy

This type of gastritis is associated with long-term intake of aspirin or NSAIDs. It also develops when bile-containing intestinal contents reflux into the stomach. Although bile reflux may occur in the intact stomach, most of the features associated with bile reflux are typically found in patients with partial gastrectomy, in whom the lesions develop near the surgical stoma. The mechanisms through which bile alters the gastric epithelium involve the effect of several bile constituents. Both lysolecithin and bile acids can disrupt the gastric mucous barrier, allowing the back diffusion of positive hydrogen ions and resulting in cellular injury. Pancreatic juice enhances epithelial injury in addition to bile acids. In contrast to other chronic gastropathies, minimal inflammation of the gastric mucosa typically occurs in chemical gastropathy.

Chronic noninfectious granulomatous gastritis

Noninfectious diseases are the usual cause of gastric granulomas and include Crohn disease, sarcoidosis, and isolated granulomatous gastritis. Crohn disease demonstrates gastric involvement in approximately 33% of the cases. Granulomas have also been described in association with gastric malignancies, including carcinoma and malignant lymphoma. Sarcoidlike granulomas may be observed in people who use cocaine, and foreign material is occasionally observed in the granuloma.

Lymphocytic gastritis

This is a type of chronic gastritis with dense infiltration of the surface and foveolar epithelium by T lymphocytes and associated chronic infiltrates in the lamina propria. Because of similar histopathology relative to celiac disease, lymphocytic gastritis has been proposed to result from intraluminal antigens. High anti-H pylori antibody titers have been found in patients with lymphocytic gastritis, and, in limited studies, the inflammation disappeared after H pylori eradication. However, many patients with lymphocytic gastritis are serologically negative for H pylori. A number of cases may develop secondary to intolerance to gluten and drugs such as ticlopidine.

Eosinophilic gastritis

Large numbers of eosinophils may be observed with parasitic infections such as those caused by Eustoma rotundatum and anisakiasis. Eosinophilic gastritis can be part of the spectrum of eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Although the gastric antrum is commonly affected and can cause gastric outlet obstruction, this condition can affect any segment of the GI tract and can be segmental.¹⁰ Patients frequently have peripheral blood eosinophilia. In some cases, especially in children, eosinophilic gastroenteritis can result from food allergy, usually to milk or soy protein. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis can also be found in some patients with connective tissue disorders, including scleroderma, polymyositis, and dermatomyositis.

Radiation gastritis

Small doses of radiation (up to 1500 R) cause reversible mucosal damage, whereas higher radiation doses cause irreversible damage with atrophy and ischemic-related ulceration. Reversible changes consist of degenerative changes in epithelial cells and nonspecific chronic inflammatory infiltrate in the lamina propria. Higher amounts of radiation cause permanent mucosal damage, with atrophy of fundic glands, mucosal erosions, and capillary hemorrhage. Associated submucosal endarteritis results in mucosal ischemia and secondary ulcer development.

Ischemic gastritis

Ischemic gastritis is believed to result from atherosclerotic thrombi arising from the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries.

Frequency

United States

Approximately 35% of adults are infected with H pylori, but the prevalence of infection in minority groups and immigrants from developing countries is much higher. Children aged 2-8 years in developing nations acquire the infection at a rate of about 10% per year; whereas, in the United States, children become infected at a rate of less than 1% per year. This major difference in the rate of acquisition in childhood is responsible for the differences in epidemiology between developed countries and developing countries. Socioeconomic differences are the most important predictor of the prevalence of the infection in any group. Higher standards of living are associated with higher levels of education and better sanitation, thus the prevalence of infection is lower.

In the United States and in other countries with modern sanitation and clean water supplies, the rate of acquisition has been decreasing since 1950. The rate of infection in people with several generations of their families living at a high socioeconomic status is in the range of 10% to 15%. This is probably the lowest the prevalence can decline spontaneously until eradication or vaccination programs are instituted.

Lymphocytic gastritis has been estimated to represent approximately 1.4% of all gastritides. The disease has been reported in various parts of the world but more commonly in Europe, and it appears to be less common in the United States.

Chronic reactive chemical gastropathy is one of the most common and poorly recognized lesions of the stomach.

International

An estimated 50% of the world population is infected with H pylori; therefore, chronic gastritis is extremely frequent. H pylori infection is highly prevalent in Asia and in developing countries, and multifocal atrophic gastritis and gastric adenocarcinomas are more prevalent in these areas.¹¹

Autoimmune gastritis is a relatively rare disease, most frequently observed in individuals of northern European descent^1,12 and blacks. The prevalence of pernicious anemia, resulting from autoimmune gastritis, has been estimated at 127 cases per 100,000 members of the population in the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden. The frequency of pernicious anemia is increased in patients with other immunologic diseases, including Graves disease, myxedema, thyroiditis, and hypoparathyroidism.

Mortality/Morbidity

Morbidity of chronic gastritis is strongly related to the underlying cause. Chronic gastritis as a primary disease, such as H pylori- associated chronic gastritis, may progress as an asymptomatic disease in some patients, whereas other patients may report dyspeptic symptoms.

• The clinical course may be worsened when patients develop any of the possible complications of H pylori infection such as peptic ulcer or gastric malignancy.
• H pylori gastritis is the most frequent cause of MALT lymphoma. Patients with chronic atrophic gastritis may have a 12- to 16-fold increased risk of developing gastric carcinoma, compared with the general population. Approximately 1 in 6 infected persons develop peptic ulcer, and, in the United States, approximately 25% develop hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria. The lifetime risk of gastric cancer is in the range of 1% to 3%.
• Environmental factors, such as diet and standard of living, are important in determining which pathway is prevalent in a country or area.
• In patients with autoimmune gastritis, the major effects are consequent to the loss of parietal and chief cells and include achlorhydria, hypergastrinemia, loss of pepsin and pepsinogen, anemia, and an increased risk of gastric neoplasms. Autoimmune gastritis represents the most frequent cause of pernicious anemia in temperate climates. The risk of gastric adenocarcinoma appears to be at least 2.9 times higher in patients with pernicious anemia than in the general population.

Race

H pylori -associated chronic gastritis appears to be more common among Asian and Hispanic people than in people of other races.

• In the United States, H pylori infection is more common among black, Native American, and Hispanic people than among white people, a difference that has been attributed to socioeconomic factors.
• Autoimmune gastritis is more frequent in individuals of northern European descent and in black people, and it is less frequent in southern European and Asian people.
• Sarcoidosis is more frequent in young black people, whereas isolated granulomatous gastritis is more common in older white people.

Sex

• Chronic H pylori- associated gastritis affects both sexes with similar frequency.
• The female-to-male ratio for autoimmune gastritis has been reported to be 3:1.
• Lymphocytic gastritis affects men and women at similar rates.

Age

Age is the most important variable relating to the prevalence of H pylori infection, with persons born before 1950 having a notably higher rate of infection than people born after 1950. For example, roughly one half of people older than 60 years are infected, compared with 20% of people younger than 40 years. This increase in infection prevalence with age is largely apparent rather than real, reflecting a continuing overall decline in the prevalence of H pylori infection.
 
Because the infection is typically acquired in childhood and is lifelong, the high proportion of older individuals (eg, 60 y or older) who are infected is the long-term result of infection that occurred in childhood when standards of living were lower. The prevalence will decrease as people who are currently aged 40 years and have a lower rate of infection grow older (a birth cohort phenomenon).

• H pylori gastritis is usually acquired during childhood, and complications typically develop later.
• Patients with autoimmune gastritis usually present with pernicious anemia, which is typically diagnosed in individuals aged approximately 60 years. However, pernicious anemia can be detected in children (juvenile pernicious anemia).
• Lymphocytic gastritis can be observed in children but is usually detected in late adulthood. On average, patients are aged 50 years.
• Eosinophilic gastroenteritis mostly affects people younger than 50 years.
• Patients who are symptomatic with idiopathic granulomatous gastritis usually present when they are older than 40 years.

Clinical

History

• H pylori infection: Acute H pylori infection is usually not clinically detected, but experimental infection results in a clinical syndrome characterized by epigastric pain, fullness, nausea, vomiting, flatulence, malaise, and (sometimes) fever. The symptoms resolve in about 1 week whether or not the organism is eliminated. Persistence of the organism causes H pylori chronic gastritis, which is usually asymptomatic but may manifest as gastric pain or, rarely, with nausea, vomiting, anorexia, or significant weight loss. Symptoms may occur with the development of complications of chronic H pylori gastritis, which include peptic ulcers, gastric adenocarcinoma, and MALT lymphoma.
• Autoimmune gastritis: The clinical manifestations are primarily related to the deficiency in cobalamin, which is not adequately absorbed because of IF deficiency as a result of severe gastric parietal cell atrophy. The disease has an insidious onset and progresses slowly. Cobalamin deficiency affects the hematologic, gastrointestinal, and neurologic systems.
  • Hematologic manifestations: The most significant manifestation is megaloblastic anemia, but, rarely, purpura due to thrombocytopenia may develop. Symptoms of anemia include weakness, light-headedness, vertigo and tinnitus, palpitations, angina, and symptoms of congestive failure.
  • Gastrointestinal manifestations: The lack of cobalamin is associated with megaloblastosis of the gastrointestinal tract epithelium. Patients sometimes report having a sore tongue. Anorexia with moderate weight loss that is occasionally associated with diarrhea may result from malabsorption associated with megaloblastic changes of the small intestinal epithelial cells.
  • Neurologic manifestations: These result from demyelination, followed by axonal degeneration and neuronal death. The affected sites include peripheral nerves, posterior and lateral columns of the spinal cord, and cerebrum. Signs and symptoms include numbness and paresthesias in the extremities, weakness, and ataxia. Sphincter disturbances may occur. Mental function disturbances vary from mild irritability to severe dementia or psychosis. The neurologic disease may occur in a patient with hematocrit and red cell parameters within the reference range.
  • Patients with pernicious anemia have an increased frequency of gastric polyps and gastric carcinoid and a 2.9-fold increase in the frequency of gastric cancer.
• Granulomatous gastritis: In multisystemic diseases, specific symptoms related to gastric involvement may be minor. Caseating granulomas secondary to tuberculosis may be found in the absence of lung disease in patients who are malnourished, immunosuppressed, or alcoholic. Patients with Crohn disease and gastric involvement may report gastric pain, nausea, and vomiting. Gastric involvement in Crohn disease is almost invariably associated with intestinal disease, and intestinal manifestations predominate. Sarcoidosis of the stomach is usually associated with granulomatous inflammation in other locations, especially the lungs, hilar nodes, or salivary glands. About 10% of patients with sarcoid involvement in the stomach are asymptomatic. Patients who are symptomatic present with gastric ulcers, hemorrhage, pyloric stricture, and gastric outlet obstruction.
• Idiopathic isolated granulomatous gastritis: This diagnosis is established only when known entities associated with granulomas are excluded. Patients who are symptomatic usually are older than 40 years at presentation and have epigastric pain, weight loss, and vomiting secondary to pyloric obstruction.
• Lymphocytic gastritis: This type mostly affects middle-aged or elderly patients. Lymphocytic gastritis may be associated with chronic H pylori infection, gluten-sensitive enteropathy, and Menetrier disease. It may represent a hypersensitivity reaction involving the gastric body. Lymphocytic gastritis has been described complicating MALT lymphoma and gastric carcinoma.
• Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: Some patients have underlying connective tissue disorders. Patients with predominant mucosal involvement may report nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain related to the ingestion of specific foods. Patients with involvement of the muscularis propria and resulting thickening and rigidity may present with outlet obstruction symptoms. Many patients have a history of allergy, peripheral eosinophilia, asthma, eczema, or food sensitivity. Some patients have a response to removal of these items from the diet, and their condition often responds to steroid treatment.
• Gastritis in graft versus host disease: Graft versus host disease (GVHD) follows allogeneic bone marrow transplantation or transfusions, especially in patients who are immunocompromised. Patients with isolated gastric GVHD have symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and upper abdominal pain without diarrhea.¹³

Physical

The physical examination is of little contributory value in chronic gastritis. However, some findings are specifically associated with the particular complications of H pylori- associated gastritis and autoimmune gastritis.

• In uncomplicated H pylori- associated atrophic gastritis, clinical findings are few and nonspecific.
  • Epigastric tenderness may exist.
  • If gastric ulcers coexist, guaiac-positive stool may result from occult blood loss.
• Bad breath (ie, halitosis) and abdominal pain or discomfort may occur, with bloating associated with bacterial overgrowth syndrome.
• Physical findings may result from the development of pernicious anemia and neurologic complications in patients with autoimmune atrophic gastritis.
• With severe cobalamin deficiency, the patient is pale and has slightly icteric skin and eyes. The pulse is rapid, and the heart may be enlarged. Auscultation usually reveals a systolic flow murmur.

Causes

See Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease. Types of chronic gastritis include the following:

• Infectious gastritis
  • Chronic gastritis caused by H pylori infection - This is the most common cause of chronic gastritis.
  • Infection by Helicobacter heilmannii
  • Granulomatous gastritis associated with gastric infections in mycobacteriosis, syphilis, histoplasmosis, mucormycosis, South American blastomycosis, anisakiasis, or anisakidosis
  • Chronic gastritis associated with parasitic infections -Strongyloides species, schistosomiasis, Diphyllobothrium latum
  • Viral infections such as CMV and herpes virus infection¹⁴
• Noninfectious gastritis
  • Autoimmune gastritis
  • Chemical gastropathy, usually related to chronic bile reflux or NSAID and aspirin intake
  • Uremic gastropathy
  • Chronic noninfectious granulomatous gastritis,^15,16 associated with the following:
    • Crohn disease
    • Sarcoidosis
    • Wegener granulomatosis
    • Foreign bodies
    • Cocaine use
    • Isolated granulomatous gastritis
    • Chronic granulomatous disease of childhood
    • Eosinophilic granuloma
    • Allergic granulomatosis and vasculitis
    • Plasma cell granulomas
    • Rheumatoid nodules
    • Tumoral amyloidosis and granulomas associated with gastric carcinoma
    • Gastric lymphoma
    • Langerhans cell histiocytosis
  • Lymphocytic gastritis, including gastritis associated with celiac disease (also called collagenous gastritis)¹⁷
  • Eosinophilic gastritis
  • Radiation injury to the stomach
  • GVHD
  • Ischemic gastritis¹⁸
  • Gastritis secondary to drug therapy
• Chronic gastritis of undetermined etiology or gastritis of undetermined type (eg autistic gastritis¹⁹ )

Differential Diagnoses

Crohn Disease
Gastritis, Atrophic
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Workup

Laboratory Studies

• The diagnosis of chronic gastritis can only be ascertained histologically. Therefore, histologic assessment of endoscopic biopsies is essential. The identification of the underlying cause of chronic gastritis and the assessment of specific complications can require several laboratory tests.
• Atrophic gastritis may be assessed by measuring serum levels of the pepsinogen I–to–pepsinogen II ratio. Pepsinogen I (PGA, PGI) and pepsinogen II (PGC, PGII) are synthesized and secreted by gastric chief cells. After secretion into the gastric lumen, they are converted into proteolytic active pepsins. The level of PGA in the serum decreases as loss of gastric chief cells during gastric atrophy occurs, resulting in a decreased PGI/PGII ratio. Gastric carcinoma occurs, especially the intestinal type, usually in association with severe atrophic gastritis.Measuring the levels of pepsinogen I and II and the pepsinogen I/II ratio in the serum is useful for screening atrophic gastritis and gastric cancer in regions with a high incidence of these diseases. Pepsinogen determination is especially useful in epidemiologic studies; however, the sensitivity (84.6%) and specificity of the assay is relatively low (73.5%) values reported in a study.
• Rapid urease test from gastric biopsy tissue
• Bacterial culture of gastric biopsy: This is usually performed in the research setting or to assess antibiotic susceptibility in patients for whom first-line eradication therapy fails.
• Diagnosis of autoimmune gastritis
  • Antiparietal and anti-IF antibodies in the serum
  • Achlorhydria, both basal and stimulated, and hypergastrinemia
  • Low serum cobalamin (vitamin B-12) levels (<100 pg/mL)
  • Possible abnormal result on Schilling test (can be corrected by IF)

Other Tests

Magnifying endoscopy is helpful to analyze the subepithelial microvascular architecture as well as the mucosal surface microstructure without tissue biopsy.²⁰ Using this technique, investigators from the UK were able to describe the normal gastric microvasculature pattern and identify characteristic patterns in 2 cases of autoimmune atrophic gastritis.²¹

Procedures

• Performing an upper GI endoscopy is essential to establish a diagnosis of gastritis.
  • Although some studies have suggested that H pylori infection can be determined on the basis of unique endoscopic features, particularly the presence of antral nodularity, a specific relationship between H pylori and macroscopic features remains controversial. The endoscopic findings in chronic H pylori infection may include areas of intestinal metaplasia. Sample multiple biopsies. Tissue sampling from the gastric antrum, incisura, and corpus is essential to establish the topography of gastritis and to identify atrophy and intestinal metaplasia, which usually is patchy. It is recommended that biopsy samples of the gastric body and those from the antrum and incisura are submitted in separate containers for pathologic evaluation.
  • Endoscopic findings in granulomatous gastritis include mucosal nodularity with cobblestoning, multiple aphthous ulcers, linear or serpiginous ulcerations, thickened antral folds, antral narrowing, hypoperistalsis, and duodenal strictures. Extensive gastric involvement may resemble linitis plastica.
  • Lymphocytic gastritis at endoscopy shows enlarged folds and aphthoid erosions, with the appearance of small, heaped-up, volcanolike mounds pocked with a central crater. This endoscopic pattern has also been described as varioliform gastritis.
  • The endoscopic findings of reflux and chemical gastropathy are those of a gastric mucosa that is red or has red streaks with areas of apparent hemorrhage.
• Diagnosis of H pylori- associated gastritis: The standard method to assess whether H pylori is the underlying cause of gastritis is histologic identification of the organism. Histologic examination is also used to evaluate the degree and distribution of gastritis. Obtain at least 2 biopsies from the gastric antrum, 2 from the corpus, and 1 from the incisura.
  • Special stains to identify H pylori (eg, Warthin-Starry, Giemsa, Genta) or immunohistochemistry may be necessary when the organisms are not observed and chronic gastritis is obvious.
  • At late stages of infection with extensive atrophic gastritis, the numbers of H pylori organisms are markedly decreased because intestinal metaplasia creates an unfavorable environment for H pylori. In these cases, other tests, such as the urea breath test, and serologic evidence of infection may provide evidence for H pylori infection.

Histologic Findings

H pylori- associated gastritis (see Images 1-2 or below) can display different levels of severity. H pylori organisms are found within the gastric mucous layer and frequently accumulate in groups of bacteria at the apical side of gastric surface cells, occasionally in the lower portions of the gastric foveolae, and rarely within the deeper areas of the mucosa in association with glandular cells.

Helicobacter pylori-caused chronic active gastritis. Genta stain (20X). Multiple organisms (brown) are visibly adherent to gastric surface epithelial cells.

Chronic gastritis associated with Helicobacter pylori infection. Numerous plasma cells in the lamina propria.

In disease of longer duration, significant loss of gastric glands is observed, in a condition known as gastric atrophy. Gastric atrophy may result from the loss of gastric epithelial cells that were not replaced by appropriate cell proliferation, or atrophy may result because the epithelium was replaced by intestinal-type epithelium (intestinal metaplasia). In advanced stages of atrophy associated with chronic H pylori infection, both the corpus and antrum display an extensive replacement by intestinal metaplasia that is associated with the development of hypochlorhydria. With expansion of intestinal metaplasia, the number of H pylori organisms that are detectable in the stomach decreases because H pylori is excluded from areas of metaplastic epithelium.

The histologic changes of autoimmune atrophic gastritis vary in different phases of the disease. During an early phase, multifocal diffuse infiltration of the lamina propria by mononuclear cells and eosinophils and focal T-cell infiltration of oxyntic glands with glandular destruction occurs. Focal mucous neck cell hyperplasia (pseudopyloric metaplasia) and hypertrophic changes of parietal cells are also observed.

During the florid phase of the disease, increased lymphocytic inflammation, oxyntic gland atrophy, and focal intestinal metaplasia occur. The end stage is characterized by diffuse involvement of the gastric corpus and fundus by chronic atrophic gastritis associated with little intestinal metaplasia. The antrum is spared.

Granulomatous gastritis predominantly affects the gastric antrum. In early stages, the only findings may be isolated granulomas in the mucosa and submucosa. In later stages of the disease, inflammation extends to the muscularis propria and fibrosis may be prominent. Granulomas associated with tuberculosis are typically caseating. Poorly formed granulomas can also be observed in syphilitic involvement of the stomach in the tertiary stage of the disease.

Noninfectious causes of gastric granulomas typically result in noncaseating granulomas. These diseases include Crohn disease, sarcoidosis, and isolated granulomas. Crohn disease affecting the stomach consists of patchy inflammation with pit or gland abscesses. Lymphoid aggregates are common. Severe cases may show fissures, ulcers, transmural inflammation, and serosal and submucosal fibrosis. Noncaseating epithelioid granulomas may be observed. Diffuse inflammatory infiltration in the lamina propria and glandular atrophy occur. Gastric involvement is almost invariably synchronous with Crohn disease in the ileum or colon.

Sarcoidosis and isolated granulomas are characterized by bland granulomas with mild associated inflammation. Although sarcoidosis affecting the stomach typically coexists with sarcoidosis involvement of other organs, isolated granulomatous gastritis only affects the stomach and is a diagnosis of exclusion.

CMV infection of the stomach is observed in patients with underlying immunosuppression. Histologically, typical intranuclear eosinophilic inclusions and, occasionally, smaller intracytoplasmic inclusions are found (see Image 5 or below). Patchy, mild, inflammatory infiltrate is observed in the lamina propria. Viral inclusions are present in gastric epithelial cells and in endothelial or mesenchymal cells in the lamina propria. Severe mucosal necrosis may result in severe ulceration.

Chronic gastritis. Typical cytomegalovirus inclusions in lamina propria capillary endothelial cells. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Herpes simplex causes basophilic intranuclear inclusions in epithelial cells. M avium-intracellulare infections are characterized by diffuse infiltration of the lamina propria by histiocytes, which rarely form granulomas (see Image 4 or below).

Chronic gastritis. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in gastric lamina propria macrophages. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

In gastritis in GVHD, the stomach is rarely affected. Typical epithelial cell apoptosis and pit or gland dilatation occur. Pit and gland abscesses and nonspecific inflammation of the lamina propria may be observed. In severe disease, glandular atrophy, focal intestinal metaplasia, and severe mucosal denudation may occur.

In eosinophilic gastritis, the mucosa shows intense patchy infiltration by numerous eosinophils, with occasional pit abscesses. The infiltrate typically contains 10-50 eosinophils per high-power field and plasma cells. Mucosal edema, congestion, and necrosis of the surface epithelium with small erosions may be present. Mucosal infiltration by a bandlike eosinophil infiltrate in the lower lamina propria above the muscularis mucosa characterizes eosinophilic gastroenteritis associated with connective tissue disorders.

In lymphocytic gastritis, the lamina propria and pit epithelium are infiltrated by large numbers of small mature T-cell lymphocytes. Abundant T lymphocytes typically permeate the surface epithelium. A diagnosis can be rendered when 30 or more lymphocytes per 100 consecutive epithelial cells are observed, and performing the counts in biopsies from the gastric corpus is recommended.

In chemical gastropathy, the changes are more prominent in the prepyloric region, but they may extend to involve the oxyntic mucosa. The histologic changes associated with chronic bile reflux and long-term NSAID intake include mucosal edema, congestion, fibromuscular hyperplasia in the lamina propria, and pit or foveolar hyperplasia that may create a corkscrew pattern. The cellular proliferation is associated with reactive nuclear features and epithelial reduction of mucin. The epithelial changes occur with paucity of inflammatory cells.

In radiation gastritis, radiation causes degenerative changes in epithelial cells and a nonspecific chronic inflammatory infiltrate in the lamina propria. These changes are reversible in a period of a few months. Higher amounts of radiation cause permanent mucosal damage, with atrophy of fundic glands, mucosal erosions, and capillary hemorrhage. Associated submucosal endarteritis results in mucosal ischemia and secondary ulcer development.

In ischemic gastritis, chronic ischemia may produce superficial erosions and, rarely, deep ulcers. Inflammatory changes are observed in the context of ulcer repair. Ischemic ulcers are more frequently antral and are often surrounded by multiple erosions.

Idiopathic granulomatous gastritis demonstrates histopathology similar to sarcoid involvement of the stomach. Antral narrowing caused by transmural, noncaseating, granulomatous inflammation occurs. Inflammation and fibrosis are usually limited to the mucosa. Idiopathic granulomatous gastritis may represent isolated or limited forms of gastric sarcoid or Crohn disease.

Treatment

Medical Care

Treatment of chronic gastritis can be directed to a specific etiologic agent, when it is known. In other situations in which gastritis represents gastric involvement of a systemic disease, treatment is targeted to the primary disease. The treatment approach for H pylori infection is described in detail in this article and elsewhere (eg, American College of Gastroenterology Issues Guidelines for Treatment of Helicobacter pylori Infection). Treatment for other diseases is detailed in specific disease articles.

• Some entities manifested by chronic gastritis do not have well-established treatment protocols. For example, in lymphocytic gastritis, some cases of spontaneous healing have been reported. However, because the disease has a chronic course, treatment is recommended. Some studies have reported successful treatment of exudative lymphocytic gastritis with omeprazole.Until recently, specific recommendations for H pylori eradication were limited to peptic ulcer disease. However, at the 1997 Digestive Health Initiative (DHI) International Update Conference on H pylori held in the United States, the recommendations for H pylori testing and treatment were broadened. H pylori testing and eradication of the infection were also recommended after resection of early gastric cancer and for low-grade MALT lymphoma. Further, if H pylori infection is identified as the underlying cause of gastritis, the idea that eradication of the organism should follow is now almost generally accepted.
• H pylori infection is not easily cured, and research has shown a need for multidrug therapy. H pylori are bacteria that infect the mucosal surface. As with other bacterial infections, therapy includes antimicrobial agents to which the bacterium is sensitive. The antibiotics that have proven effective include clarithromycin, amoxicillin, metronidazole, tetracycline, and furazolidone. Cure rates with single antibiotic agents have been poor, ranging from 0% to 35%. Monotherapy is associated with the rapid development of antibiotic resistance, especially to metronidazole and clarithromycin.
• Five regimens are approved by the FDA for the treatment of H pylori infection. A version of the traditional bismuth, metronidazole, tetracycline (BMT) triple therapy has been approved and is available commercially as Helidac. The regimen combines a histamine 2 (H2) receptor antagonist, bismuth subsalicylate, metronidazole, and tetracycline, which are administered for 14 days. The antibiotics and bismuth are provided in a convenient dose pack that is thought to enhance compliance.Three different combinations using clarithromycin have been approved, including 2 dual therapies consisting of 500 mg of clarithromycin 3 times daily plus either omeprazole or ranitidine bismuth citrate ([RBC] Tritec). The cure rates reported in the packaging literature suggest that the 3 combinations are similarly effective. Clinical experience has shown that the ranked order of effectiveness is the BMT triple therapy, RBC plus clarithromycin, followed by omeprazole plus clarithromycin.
• Because higher success rates can be achieved when a third drug is added to the dual therapies, most authorities now recommend triple drug combinations. This recommendation was confirmed by the approval of the combination of a proton pump inhibitor (PPI), lansoprazole (Prevacid), plus clarithromycin and amoxicillin. The cure rate with this combination is greater than 85%. Lansoprazole plus amoxicillin was also approved, but the tremendous variability with this dual therapy makes it a very poor choice.
• The most widely used efficient therapies to eradicate H pylori are triple therapies, and they are recommended as first-line treatments; quadruple therapies are recommended as second-line treatment when triple therapies fail to eradicate H pylori. In both cases, the best results are achieved by administering therapy for 10-14 days, although some studies have limited the duration of treatment to 7 days. The accepted definition of a cure is that no evidence of H pylori exists for 4 or more weeks after ending the antimicrobial therapy.
• Triple therapy, with indicated adult dose
  • Twice-a-day PPI or RBC triple therapies
    • PPI - Lansoprazole (Prevacid) 30 mg PO bid, omeprazole (Prilosec) 20 mg PO bid, or RBC (Tritec) 400 mg bid
    • Clarithromycin (Biaxin) 500 mg PO bid
    • Amoxicillin 1000 mg PO bid or metronidazole 500 mg PO bid
  • Pack kits containing combination triple therapies are available as combinations of lansoprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin (PrevPac) and bismuth subsalicylate, tetracycline, and metronidazole (Helidac).
  • PrevPac contains drug combinations in the dosage recommended as first-line treatment by the Maastricht 2-2000 Consensus Report in Europe. PrevPac components include the following:
    • Lansoprazole (Prevacid) 30 mg PO bid
    • Clarithromycin (Biaxin) 500 mg PO bid
    • Amoxicillin 1000 mg PO bid
  • Helidac triple therapy components include the following:
    • Bismuth subsalicylate 525 mg (two, 262.4-mg chewable tablets) qid
    • Metronidazole 250 mg qid
    • Tetracycline hydrochloride 500 mg qid
• Quadruple therapy with indicated adult dose
  • A PPI twice a day - Lansoprazole (Prevacid) 30 mg PO bid or omeprazole (Prilosec) 20 mg PO bid
  • Tetracycline HCl 500 mg PO qid
  • Bismuth subsalicylate 120 mg PO qid
  • Metronidazole 500 mg PO tid
• Do not administer antibiotic therapy if the patient does not have a confirmed infection, and assess the results of the therapy. Manage cases of subsequent H pylori eradication failure on a case-by-case basis and base antibiotic selection on pretreatment antibiotic sensitivity test results.
• Treatment of H pylori infection in children: The optimal treatment for H pylori in childhood is not well established. Treatment has not been studied extensively, and no consensus exists for the optimum regimen. However, the benefits of treating the infection in patients with duodenal ulcer are obvious, whereas treating children who are asymptomatic is controversial. Although the literature is replete with contrary recommendations, many authorities now recommend treating all people, adults and children, in whom H pylori infection is demonstrated. Isolated studies have shown eradication efficiencies with triple therapies, ranging from 56% to 87% of the cases. In children, clarithromycin and metronidazole H pylori resistance is a problem in several countries, resulting in less efficient eradication regimens.
  • The doses used in 2 separate studies of triple regimens that include lansoprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin were as follows. In one study using lansoprazole 0.75 mg/kg bid for 7 days, amoxicillin 25 mg/kg bid for 7 days, and clarithromycin 10 mg/kg bid for 7 days, the eradication rate was reported to be 87%. In another study, the drug doses used were lansoprazole 0.45 mg/kg per day divided bid (maximum dose of 15 mg bid), amoxicillin 40 mg/kg per day in 2 doses (maximum dose of 1 g bid), and clarithromycin 250 mg bid (<10 y) or 500 mg bid (>10 y) for 2 weeks. Eradication of bacteria was achieved in only 56% of children with this protocol.
  • Eradication rates in children were reported to be as high as 96% with alternative eradication regimens that include amoxicillin, bismuth, and metronidazole.
  • The adverse effects of the various regimens are similar in children and adults. Bismuth toxicity is not a concern in children receiving H pylori therapy, but salicylate ingestion from the use of bismuth subsalicylate is. Inform parents of the presence of subsalicylate. Ideally, children younger than 16 years should not receive salicylate-containing compounds because of the risk of Reye syndrome.

Medication

The most widely used and efficient agents to eradicate H pylori are triple therapies (recommended as first-line treatment) and quadruple therapies (recommended as second-line treatment).

Antibiotics

Antimicrobial activity against most H pylori strains. Rare resistant strains have been reported.

Amoxicillin (Amoxil, Trimox)

Acid-stable semisynthetic penicillin. The antimicrobial activity of amoxicillin is pH-dependent, with the minimal inhibitory concentration decreasing as the pH increases.

Dosing

Adult

1000 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

Reduces the efficacy of oral contraceptives

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in patients with renal impairment; pseudomembranous colitis has been reported with nearly all antibacterial agents, including amoxicillin, and may range in severity from mild to life threatening (consider diagnosis in patients who present with diarrhea subsequent to administration of antibacterial agents); caution in cephalosporin allergy

Clarithromycin (Biaxin)

Macrolide that binds to bacterial ribosomes and disrupts protein synthesis, leading to bacterial cell death. Most acid-stable of the macrolides and has lowest minimal inhibitory concentration. Major metabolite also is active against H pylori.

Dosing

Adult

500 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

Toxicity increases with coadministration of fluconazole and pimozide; effects decrease and GI adverse effects may increase with coadministration of rifabutin or rifampin; may increase toxicity of anticoagulants, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, digoxin, omeprazole, carbamazepine, ergot alkaloids, triazolam, HMG CoA reductase inhibitors; serious cardiac arrhythmias may occur with coadministration of cisapride; plasma levels of certain benzodiazepines may increase, prolonging CNS depression; arrhythmias and increase in QTc intervals occur with disopyramide; coadministration with omeprazole may increase plasma levels of both agents; consider monitoring serum theophylline concentrations for patients receiving high doses of theophylline or for patients with baseline concentrations in the upper therapeutic range

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; coadministration of pimozide

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Coadministration with ranitidine or bismuth citrate is not recommended with CrCl <25 mL/min; administer half dose or increase dosing interval if CrCl <30 mL/min; diarrhea may be sign of pseudomembranous colitis; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapies

Tetracycline (Sumycin)

Treats infection with gram-positive and gram-negative organisms as well as mycoplasmal, chlamydial, and rickettsial infections. Inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding with 30S and possibly 50S ribosomal subunit(s). Potency is affected in solutions of pH <2 and is rapidly destroyed by alkali hydroxide solutions.

Dosing

Adult

500 mg PO qid

Pediatric

<8 years: Not recommended
>8 years: Not established

Interactions

Bioavailability decreases with antacids containing aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, or bismuth subsalicylate; can decrease effects of oral contraceptives, causing breakthrough bleeding and increased risk of pregnancy; tetracyclines can increase hypoprothrombinemic effects of anticoagulants; concurrent use of methoxyflurane has been reported to result in fatal renal toxicity

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; severe hepatic dysfunction

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Photosensitivity may occur with prolonged exposure to sunlight or tanning equipment; reduce dose in renal impairment; consider drug serum level determinations in prolonged therapy; tetracycline use during tooth development (last half of pregnancy through age 8 y) can cause permanent discoloration of teeth; Fanconilike syndrome may occur with outdated tetracyclines; diarrhea may be sign of pseudomembranous colitis

Metronidazole (Flagyl)

Imidazole ring-based antibiotic active against various anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. Used in combination with other antimicrobial agents. Activity is pH independent, theoretically making it an ideal drug for the gastric environment.

Dosing

Adult

250 mg PO qid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

Cimetidine may increase toxicity of metronidazole; may increase effects of anticoagulants; may increase toxicity of lithium and phenytoin; disulfiramlike reaction may occur with orally ingested ethanol

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in hepatic disease; monitor for seizures and development of peripheral neuropathy; caution in patients with blood dyscrasias; mild leukopenia has been observed; however, no persistent hematologic abnormalities were observed; known or previously unrecognized candidiasis may develop more prominent symptoms during therapy, requiring treatment with a candicidal agent

Proton Pump Inhibitors

A substituted benzimidazole (a compound that inhibits gastric acid secretion) is the active ingredient. PPIs do not exhibit anticholinergic or H2 antagonistic activities but suppress acid secretion by specific inhibition of the H⁺/K⁺ -ATPase enzyme system on the secretory surface of parietal cells.

Omeprazole (Prilosec)

Decreases gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the parietal cell H⁺/K⁺ -ATP pump.

Dosing

Adult

20 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

May decrease effects of itraconazole and ketoconazole; may increase toxicity of warfarin, digoxin, and phenytoin

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Bioavailability may increase in elderly patients

Lansoprazole (Prevacid)

Decreases gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the parietal cell H⁺/K⁺ -ATP pump.

Dosing

Adult

30 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

May decrease effects of ketoconazole and itraconazole, ampicillin esters, iron salts, and digoxin; may increase theophylline clearance (dose titration may be indicated when therapy is started or stopped); metabolized through cytochrome P-450 system (CYP3A and CYP2C19 isozymes); does not have clinically significant interactions with other drugs metabolized by the cytochrome P-450 system; absorption delayed and bioavailability reduced with coadministration of sucralfate (separate sucralfate dosing by at least 30 min)

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Consider adjusting dose in patients with liver impairment

Rabeprazole (Aciphex)

Decreases gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the parietal cell H⁺/K⁺ -ATP pump.

Dosing

Adult

30 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

None reported

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Symptomatic response to this product does not exclude possibility of malignancy

Pantoprazole (Protonix)

Decreases gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the parietal cell H⁺/K⁺ -ATP pump.

Dosing

Adult

40 mg PO bid

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

None reported

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Symptomatic response to this product does not exclude possibility of malignancy

Esomeprazole (Nexium)

Inhibits gastric acid secretion by inhibiting H⁺/K⁺ -ATPase enzyme system at secretory surface of gastric parietal cells.

Dosing

Adult

20-40 mg PO qd for 4-8 wk

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

None reported

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Symptomatic relief with PPIs may mask symptoms of gastric malignancy

Bismuth Compounds

The components of bismuth-containing therapies, including bismuth subsalicylate, metronidazole, clarithromycin, and tetracycline, individually have demonstrated in vitro activity against most susceptible strains of H pylori.

Ranitidine bismuth citrate (Tritec)

Combination of ranitidine (inhibits H2 receptor in gastric parietal cells, which reduces gastric acid secretion, gastric volume, and hydrogen concentrations) and bismuth citrate. Do not administer as monotherapy. Administer 30 min before sucralfate.

Dosing

Adult

400 mg PO bid; coadministered with clarithromycin (500 mg PO) and amoxicillin (1000 mg PO)

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

May decrease effects of ketoconazole and itraconazole; may alter serum levels of ferrous sulfate, diazepam, nondepolarizing muscle relaxants, and oxaprozin; coadministration with clarithromycin increases plasma ranitidine concentrations (57%), plasma bismuth trough concentrations (48%), and 14-hydroxy-clarithromycin plasma concentrations (31%)

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; porphyria

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Caution in patients with renal or liver impairment; if changes in renal function occur during therapy, consider adjusting dose or discontinuing treatment; not recommended in patients with CrCl <25 mL/min; bismuth may cause temporary and harmless darkening of the tongue and/or stool (not to be confused with melena); caution in women who are breastfeeding

Follow-up

Further Outpatient Care

• If a patient was treated for H pylori infection, confirm eradication.
  • Evaluate eradication at least 4 weeks after the beginning of treatment.
  • The eradication may be assessed by noninvasive methods such as the urea breath test or stool antigen test.
  • Follow-up may be individualized depending on findings during endoscopy. For example, if dysplasia is found with endoscopy, increased surveillance is necessary.
  • For patients with atrophic gastritis and/or dysplasia, a follow-up endoscopy is recommended after 6 months.

Deterrence/Prevention

• Epidemiologic studies of H pylori- associated chronic gastritis have shown that acquisition of the infection is associated with large, crowded households and lower socioeconomic status.
• Well-defined preventive measures are not established.

Prognosis

• Prognosis is related to the underlying cause of gastritis.
• Chronic gastritis associated with H pylori may exist as an asymptomatic process for the entire life of the individual, or it may manifest by nonspecific dyspeptic symptoms or by specific complications.
  • Eradication results in rapid curing of the infection with disappearance of the neutrophilic infiltration of the gastric mucosa.
  • Disappearance of the lymphoid component of gastritis might take several months after treatment.
• Results from studies evaluating the evolution of atrophic gastritis after eradication of H pylori have been conflicting.
  • Follow-up for as long as several years after H pylori eradication has not demonstrated regression of gastric atrophy in most studies, whereas others report improvement in the extent of atrophy and intestinal metaplasia.
  • Another important question is whether H pylori eradication in a patient with atrophic gastritis reduces the risk of gastric cancer development. Limited data are available, but a prospective study in a Japanese population reported that H pylori eradication in patients with endoscopically resected early gastric cancer resulted in the decreased appearance of new early cancers, whereas intestinal-type gastric cancers developed in the control group without H pylori eradication. These findings support an intervention approach with eradication of H pylori if the organisms are detected in patients with atrophic gastritis; the goal is to prevent the development of gastric cancer.

Patient Education

• For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Esophagus, Stomach, and Intestine Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education article Gastritis.

Miscellaneous

Medicolegal Pitfalls

• Failure to correctly diagnose the underlying cause of chronic gastritis may result in unnecessary morbidity.
• Failure to identify and treat H pylori infection in the presence of peptic ulcers may result in ulcer recurrence and complications.

Multimedia

Media file 1: Helicobacter pylori-caused chronic active gastritis. Genta stain (20X). Multiple organisms (brown) are visibly adherent to gastric surface epithelial cells.

Media file 2: Chronic gastritis associated with Helicobacter pylori infection. Numerous plasma cells in the lamina propria.

Media file 3: Granulomatous chronic gastritis. Noncaseating granulomas in the lamina propria. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Media file 4: Chronic gastritis. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in gastric lamina propria macrophages. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Media file 5: Chronic gastritis. Typical cytomegalovirus inclusions in lamina propria capillary endothelial cells. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Media file 6: Chronic gastritis. Chemical gastropathy. Courtesy of Sydney Finkelstein, MD, PhD, University of Pittsburgh.

Media file 7: Lymphocytic chronic gastritis. The gastric epithelium is studded with numerous lymphocytes. Intraepithelial lymphocytes are T-cell lymphocytes shown by immunoreactivity to CD3 (brown strain), right panel.

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Keywords

chronic gastritis, gastritis, Helicobacter gastritis, H pylori–associated chronic gastritis, stomach problems, stomach inflammation, type B nonatrophic gastritis, superficial nonatrophic gastritis, diffuse antral nonatrophic gastritis, chronic antral nonatrophic gastritis, interstitial-follicular nonatrophic gastritis, hypersecretory nonatrophic gastritis,

type A atrophic gastritis, diffuse corporal atrophic gastritis, pernicious anemia–associated gastritis, metaplastic atrophic gastritis, atrophic pangastritis, progressive intestinalizing pangastritis, environmental atrophic gastritis, type C reactive gastritis, bile reflux, chronic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug gastropathy,

Helicobacter pylori infection, –associated multifocal atrophic gastritis, H pylori gastritis, varioliform gastritis, chemical gastritis, reactive gastritis, infectious granulomatous gastritis, gastritis in patients who are immunosuppressed, autoimmune gastritis, chronic reactive chemical gastropathy, chronic noninfectious granulomatous gastritis, lymphocytic gastritis, eosinophilic gastritis, radiation gastritis, ischemic gastritis, gastropathies,

Sydney classification of gastritis, vacuolating toxin A, VacA, CagA protein, gastric mucosa–associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas, MALT lymphomas, gastric adenocarcinomas, gastric carcinomas, gastric cancer, caseating granulomas, tuberculosis, cytomegalovirus infection, CMV infection, mycobacterial infections, anti-intrinsic factor antibodies,

pernicious anemia, NSAIDs, Crohn disease, sarcoidosis, isolated granulomatous gastritis, , anisakiasis, anisakidosis, hypochlorhydria, achlorhydria, hypergastrinemia, cobalamin deficiency, gluten-sensitive enteropathy,

Ménétrier disease, , mycobacteriosis, syphilis, histoplasmosis, mucormycosis, South American blastomycosis, Strongyloides species, Diphyllobothrium latum, schistosomiasis, herpes virus infection, uremic gastropathy, Wegenergranulomatosis, cocaine use, plasma cell granulomas, celiac disease, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, gastric lymphoma

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Sandeep Mukherjee, MB, BCh, MPH, FRCPC, Associate Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Nebraska Medical Center; Consulting Staff, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center
Sandeep Mukherjee, MB, BCh, MPH, FRCPC is a member of the following medical societies: Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Antonia R Sepulveda, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Pathology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; Director of Surgical Pathology, Director of Surgical Pathology Fellowship, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania
Antonia R Sepulveda, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American Cancer Society, American Gastroenterological Association, American Society for Investigative Pathology, College of American Pathologists, and United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Maria P Dore, MD, Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Institute of Internal Medicine, University of Sassari, Italy
Maria P Dore, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Franco Bazzoli, MD, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, University of Bologna, Italy
Franco Bazzoli, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Tushar Patel, MB, ChB, Professor of Medicine, Director of Hepatology, Ohio State University Medical Center
Tushar Patel, MB, ChB is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and American Gastroenterological Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Managing Editor

Simmy Bank, MD, Chair, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Long Island Jewish Hospital, Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Alex J Mechaber, MD, FACP, Associate Dean for Undergraduate Medical Education, Associate Professor of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
Alex J Mechaber, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, and Society of General Internal Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Julian Katz, MD, Clinical Professor of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Hospital of the Medical College of Pennsylvania
Julian Katz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Gastroenterology, American College of Physicians, American Gastroenterological Association, American Geriatrics Society, American Medical Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Law Medicine and Ethics, American Trauma Society, Association of American Medical Colleges, and Physicians for Social Responsibility
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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National Guideline Clearinghouse

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