Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding Clinical Presentation

  • Author: Burt Cagir, MD, FACS; Chief Editor: Julian Katz, MD   more...
 
Updated: Jun 1, 2011
 

History

History and physical examination are essential parts of an initial evaluation of lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB). These can provide valuable clues into the etiology and anatomical source of bleeding. Document whether this is a first or recurrent episode of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding as well as significant medical history (including peptic ulcer disease, liver disease, cirrhosis, coagulopathy, inflammatory bowel disease [IBD]) and previous medication use (eg, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and/or warfarin). In patients with cancer, the history of radiation, chemotherapy, or both should be considered.

The clinical presentation of LGIB varies with the anatomical source of the bleeding as well as with the etiology. Commonly, LGIB from the right side of the colon can manifest as maroon stools, whereas a left-sided bleeding source may be evidenced by bright red blood per rectum. In practice, however, patients with upper GI bleeding (UGIB), and right-sided colonic bleeding may also present with bright red blood per rectum if the bleeding is brisk and massive. Similarly, cecal bleeding may present with melena, which is typically seen with UGIB, suggesting no distinct method exists for determining the anatomic source of bleeding based solely on stool color.

The presentation of LGIB can also vary depending on the etiology. A young patient may present with fever, dehydration, abdominal cramps, and hematochezia caused by infectious or noninfectious (idiopathic) colitis. An older patient may present with painless bleeding and minimal symptoms caused by diverticular bleeding or angiodysplasia. LGIB can be mild and intermittent, as often is the case of angiodysplasia, or moderate or severe, as may be the situation in diverticula-related bleeding.

Symptoms are also important in identifying the source of bleeding. Young patients may with present with abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, diarrhea, and mucous discharge that may be associated with IBD. However, elderly patients presenting with abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, and diarrhea may have ischemic colitis, or elderly patients with atherosclerotic heart disease may present with intermittent LGIB and syncope that may be due to angiodysplastic lesions. Stools streaked with blood, perianal pain, and blood drops on the toilet paper or in the toilet bowl may be associated with perianal pathology, such as anal fissure or hemorrhoidal bleeding.

Massive lower GI bleeding is a life-threatening condition in which patients present with a systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mm Hg and a hemoglobin (Hb) level of 6 g/dL or less. These patients are usually aged 65 years and older, have multiple medical problems, and are at risk of death from acute hemorrhage or its complications. The passage of maroon stools or bright red blood from the rectum is usually indicative of massive lower GI hemorrhage.

Diverticular bleeding

Although diverticular bleeding is painless, patients may experience mild abdominal cramping due to the intraluminal blood that triggers spasmodic contraction of the colonic wall. Bleeding is usually acute, without antecedent symptoms, and is self-limited in about 70-80% of cases. Rebleeding can occur in up to 25% of patients.[15]

If the bleeding is brisk and voluminous, patients may be hypotensive and display signs of shock. Clinical recommendations for diverticular bleeding published by the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) in 2009 state that bleeding or unstable vital signs require rapid assessment and resuscitation before diagnostic testing.[16]

Chronic, intermittent, minimal blood loss per rectum is unlikely to be caused by diverticular bleeding, because diverticular bleeding is arterial in origin.

Angiodysplasia

Significant angiodysplasia-related bleeding, like diverticular bleeding, presents as painless, self-limited hematochezia or melena; angiodysplasia-related bleeding is venocapillary. Unlike diverticular bleeding, angiodysplasia tends to cause slow but repeated episodes of bleeding. Therefore, patients may present with Hemoccult-positive stools, iron-deficiency anemia, and syncope. Occasionally, patients can present with bleeding of large quantities.

Colitis

Ischemic colitis may or may not present with abdominal pain and associated bloody diarrhea. The bloody diarrhea is self-limited but can recur if the underlying cause is not corrected. Although the clinical presentation is indistinguishable at times from that of infectious colitis, idiopathic colitis, and radiation-induced colitis, patients with ischemic colitis are usually older with cardiovascular comorbidities. Ischemic colitis may be fulminant, presenting with acute abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, and hypotension, or this condition may be insidious, presenting with pain and rectal bleeding over several weeks.

Infectious colitis clinical examination findings vary depending on the volume status, amount of blood loss, extent of abdominal pain, and accompanying peritoneal signs. The clinical presentation of fever, diarrhea, dehydration, and abdominal pain can be caused by any of a number of bacterial, viral, or parasitic pathogens. The specific etiology can only be determined by isolating the organism from the stool, blood, or other tissue fluid. Patients may be quite ill and may experience intravascular volume depletion, abdominal pain, and generalized malaise, but blood loss is usually mild and a minor factor in symptomatology.

Colon carcinoma

The bleeding associated with colon cancer, particularly right-sided bleeding, can be insidious, with patients presenting with iron-deficiency anemia and syncope. Right-sided colon cancer may also present with maroon-colored stools or melena, whereas left-sided colonic cancers can present as bright red blood per rectum, which can sometimes be confused with hemorrhoidal bleeding.

The clinical presentation of ulcerative colitis depends on whether it is mild, moderate, or severe. Although bleeding is minimal to none in people with mild disease, those with moderate-to-severe ulcerative colitis present with bloody diarrhea with pus, abdominal cramps, and dehydration. Symptoms of weight loss and fever occur in those with severe disease. Patients with Crohn disease usually present with fever, nonbloody diarrhea, and abdominal pain. However, patients with Crohn colitis can present with bloody diarrhea.

Anorectal disease

Hemorrhoidal bleeding is most often painless, whereas bleeding secondary to fissures tends to be painful. Hemorrhoids can also present with strangulation, hematochezia, and pruritus. Typically, bright red blood coats the stool at the end of defecation or blood may stain the toilet paper. Rarely, the bleeding may be copious and distressing to the patient.

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Physical Examination

The physical examination should be thorough and include the skin, oropharynx, nasopharynx, abdomen, perineum, and anorectum to evaluate for sources of bleeding.

Because brisk UGIB can present as LGIB, a nasogastric (NG) tube may be necessary and the aspirate or lavage examined for the presence of blood and bile. These aspirates usually correlate well with upper gastric hemorrhage proximal to the Treitz ligamentum; therefore, insert an NG tube to confirm the presence or absence of blood in the stomach.

If necessary, perform gastric lavage with warm isotonic fluids to obtain bilious discharge; an aspirate that is positive for bile is comprehensive in that it includes fluid even beyond the pylorus. In such a scenario, if no blood is present, a UGIB source only makes sense if the bleeding has stopped. If this possibility exists, an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) should be performed to obtain a more specific evaluation of the upper GI tract. Place a Foley catheter to monitor urine output. Careful digital rectal examination, anoscopy, and rigid proctosigmoidoscopy should exclude an anorectal source of bleeding.

Patients who have rectal varices with portal hypertension may develop painless massive LGIB; therefore, examining the anorectum early in the workup is important. If active bleeding is identified, treat it aggressively. Note that the discovery of benign anorectal disease does not exclude the possibility of more proximal bleeding from the lower GI tract.

Once the bleeding is determined to be from the lower GI tract as opposed to an upper GI source, the tempo of the bleeding and the extent of blood loss should be quickly estimated so that a precise and targeted algorithm is adopted (see an example in the image below). Patients with massive LGIB usually present with bright red blood per rectum, hypotension, and a markedly reduced hematocrit as opposed to patients with mild bleeding who may present with intermittent passage of maroon-colored stools. The emergency implementation of aggressive resuscitation, diagnostic evaluation, and early involvement of a gastroenterologist (and surgeon in the case of a rapid LGIB) is key to reducing the morbidity and mortality and to improving outcomes.

Algorithm for massive lower gastrointestinal (GI) Algorithm for massive lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, surgical perspective. EGD = esophagogastroduodenoscopy; NG = nasogastric; 99mTc RBC = technetium-99m pertechnetate–labeled autologous RBC.
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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Burt Cagir, MD, FACS  Assistant Professor of Surgery, State University of New York Upstate Medical University; Consulting Staff, Director of Surgical Research, Robert Packer Hospital; Associate Program Director, Department of Surgery, Guthrie Clinic

Burt Cagir, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, and Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Gavin F Chico, MD  Consulting Staff, CHRISTUS Coushatta Rural Health Clinic

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Elizabeth Cirincione, MD  Director of Colon and Rectal Surgery, Department of Surgery, Nassau University Medical Center

Elizabeth Cirincione, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons and American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michael A Grosso, MD  Consulting Staff, Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, St Francis Hospital

Michael A Grosso, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Society of University Surgeons

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Kenneth J Manas, MD  Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

Kenneth J Manas, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Gastroenterology and American College of Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

David Greenwald, MD  Associate Professor of Clinical Medicine, Fellowship Program Director, Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine

David Greenwald, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Gastroenterology, American College of Physicians, American Gastroenterological Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, and New York Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Marc D Basson, MD, PhD, MBA, FACS  Professor, Chair, Department of Surgery, Assistant Dean for Faculty Development in Research, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine

Marc D Basson, MD, PhD, MBA, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Surgeons, American Gastroenterological Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Sigma Xi

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John Geibel, MD, DSc, MA  Vice Chair and Professor, Department of Surgery, Section of Gastrointestinal Medicine, and Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine; Director, Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, Yale-New Haven Hospital

John Geibel, MD, DSc, MA is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association, American Physiological Society, American Society of Nephrology, Association for Academic Surgery, International Society of Nephrology, New York Academy of Sciences, and Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract

Disclosure: AMGEN Royalty Consulting; ARdelyx Ownership interest Board membership

Chief Editor

Julian Katz, MD  Clinical Professor of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine

Julian Katz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Gastroenterology, American College of Physicians, American Gastroenterological Association, American Geriatrics Society, American Medical Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics, American Trauma Society, Association of American Medical Colleges, and Physicians for Social Responsibility

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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Types of lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB).
Methods used to treat lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB).
Types of lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. HR = heart rate; SBP = systolic blood pressure.
Algorithm for massive lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, surgical perspective. EGD = esophagogastroduodenoscopy; NG = nasogastric; 99mTc RBC = technetium-99m pertechnetate–labeled autologous RBC.
Table 1. Common Causes of Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Adults
Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Adults Percentage of Patients
Diverticular disease
  • Diverticulosis/diverticulitis of small intestine
  • Diverticulosis/diverticulitis of colon
60%
Inflammatory bowel disease
  • Crohn disease of small bowel, colon, or both
  • Ulcerative colitis
  • Noninfectious gastroenteritis and colitis
13%
Benign anorectal diseases
  • Hemorrhoids
  • Anal fissure
  • Fistula-in-ano
11%
Neoplasia
  • Malignant neoplasia of small intestine
  • Malignant neoplasia of colon, rectum, and anus
9%
Coagulopathy4%
Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs)3%
TOTAL100%
Source: Vernava AM, Longo WE, Virgo KS. A nationwide study of the incidence and etiology of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Surg Res Commun. 1996;18:113-20.[6]
Table 2. Common Causes of Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Children and Adolescents
Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Children and Adolescents
Intussusception
Polyps and polyposis syndromes
  • Juvenile polyps and polyposis
  • Peutz-Jeghers syndrome
  • Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)
Inflammatory
  • Crohn disease
  • Ulcerative colitis
  • Indeterminate colitis
Meckel diverticulum
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