Workup
Diagnostic Procedures
- Differentiation of bacterial infection from simple contamination is best made with a tissue biopsy, which allows quantitative wound culture techniques. This will indicate whether antibiotics should be administered.
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References
Fogerty M, Guy J, Barbul A, et al. African Americans show increased risk for pressure ulcers: A retrospective analysis of acute care hospitals in America. Wound Repair Regen. Aug 11 2009;[Medline].
Baumgarten M, Margolis DJ, Orwig DL, et al. Pressure ulcers in elderly patients with hip fracture across the continuum of care. J Am Geriatr Soc. May 2009;57(5):863-70. [Medline].
Gefen A. Reswick and Rogers pressure-time curve for pressure ulcer risk. Part 1. Nurs Stand. Jul 15-21 2009;23(45):64, 66, 68 passim. [Medline].
Gefen A. Reswick and Rogers pressure-time curve for pressure ulcer risk. Part 2. Nurs Stand. Jul 22-28 2009;23(46):40-4. [Medline].
Stausberg J, Kiefer E. Classification of pressure ulcers: a systematic literature review. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2009;146:511-5. [Medline].
Barbenel JC, Jordan MM, Nicol SM, Clark MO. Incidence of pressure-sores in the Greater Glasgow Health Board area. Lancet. Sep 10 1977;2(8037):548-50. [Medline].
Conway H, Griffith BH. Plastic surgery for closure of decubitus ulcers in patients with paraplegia; based on experience with 1,000 cases. Am J Surg. Jun 1956;91(6):946-75. [Medline].
Crenshaw RP, Vistnes LM. A decade of pressure sore research: 1977-1987. J Rehabil Res Dev. Winter 1989;26(1):63-74. [Medline].
Dansereau JG, Conway H. Closure of decubiti in paraplegics Report of 2000 Cases. Plast Reconstr Surg. May 1964;33:474-80. [Medline].
Dinsdale SM. Decubitus ulcers: role of pressure and friction in causation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Apr 1974;55(4):147-52. [Medline].
El-Toraei I, Chung B. The management of pressure sores. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. Sep-Oct 1977;3(5):507-11. [Medline].
Klitzman B, Kalinowski C, Glasofer SL, Rugani L. Pressure ulcers and pressure relief surfaces. Clin Plast Surg. Jul 1998;25(3):443-50. [Medline].
Koch-Bitsch K, Woiwoda R. [Decubitus ulcer prevention expert standard--excerpts from implementation: on the path to continuous improvements]. Pflege Z. Mar 2007;60(3):158-61. [Medline].
Maklebust J. An update on horizontal patient support surfaces. Ostomy Wound Manage. Jan 1999;45(1A Suppl):70S-77S; quiz 78S-79S. [Medline].
Marjolin JN. Ulcere. Dictionnaire de Medicine. 1828;21.
Mustoe T, Upton J, Marcellino V, Tun CJ, Rossier AB, Hachend HJ. Carcinoma in chronic pressure sores: a fulminant disease process. Plast Reconstr Surg. Jan 1986;77(1):116-21. [Medline].
Parish LC, Lowthian P, Witkowski JA. The decubitus ulcer: many questions but few definitive answers. Clin Dermatol. Jan-Feb 2007;25(1):101-8. [Medline].
Piascik P. Use of Regranex gel for diabetic foot ulcers. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash). Sep-Oct 1998;38(5):628-30. [Medline].
Redfern SJ, Jeneid PA, Gillingham ME, et al. Local pressures with ten types of patient-support system. Lancet. Aug 11 1973;2(7824):277-80. [Medline].
Relander M, Palmer B. Recurrence of surgically treated pressure sores. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg. 1988;22(1):89-92. [Medline].
Reuler JB, Cooney TG. The pressure sore: pathophysiology and principles of management. Ann Intern Med. May 1981;94(5):661-6. [Medline].
Rogers J, Wilson LF. Preventing recurrent tissue breakdowns after "pressure sore" closures. Plast Reconstr Surg. Oct 1975;56(4):419-22. [Medline].
Siegler EL, Lavizzo-Mourey R. Management of stage III pressure ulcers in moderately demented nursing home residents. J Gen Intern Med. Nov-Dec 1991;6(6):507-13. [Medline].
Staas WE Jr, LaMantia JG. Decubitus ulcers and rehabilitation medicine. Int J Dermatol. Oct 1982;21(8):437-44. [Medline].
Stal S, Serure A, Donovan W, Spira M. The perioperative management of the patient with pressure sores. Ann Plast Surg. Oct 1983;11(4):347-56. [Medline].
Thompson RJ. Pathological changes in mummies. Proc R Soc Med. 1961;54:409.
Further Reading
Related eMedicine topics:
Pressure Ulcers and Wound Care
Pressure Ulcers, Nonsurgical Treatment and Principles
Pressure Ulcers, Surgical Treatment and Principles
Wound Care
Wound Healing, Chronic Wounds
Clinical guidelines:
Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Treatment Following Spinal Cord Injury
Risk Assessment and Prevention of Pressure Ulcers
Clinical studies:
An RCT on Preventing Pressure Ulcers With Wheelchair Seat Cushions
Pressure Ulcer Prevention: Turning for Ulcer Reduction (TURN)
Keywords
decubitus ulcer, decubitus, pressure ulcer, pressure ulcers, bed sores, bed sore, pressure sore, pressure sores, bedsores, diabetic ulcer, decubitus ulcers, pressure ulcer staging, decubitus sore, ischial tuberosity ulcer, bed ridden, bedridden, bed rest injury, bedrest injury, chronic ulceration, pressure ulceration, decubitus ulceration
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