eMedicine Specialties > General Surgery > Abdomen

Acute Abdomen and Pregnancy

Author: Dana Taylor, MD, FACS, Assistant Professor of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tennessee; Consulting Surgeon, University General Surgeons, PC
Coauthor(s): Robin Perry, MD, Vice Chief, Associate Program Director, Associate Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Cooper Hospital and UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Oct 20, 2009

General Principles

Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 27th Edition defines acute abdomen as "any serious acute intra-abdominal condition attended by pain, tenderness, and muscular rigidity, and for which emergency surgery must be considered."

The approach to pregnant patients with severe abdominal pain is very similar to that for nonpregnant patients with acute abdomen. However, the physiologic changes associated with pregnancy must be considered when interpreting findings from the history and physical examination.

History

Obtain as detailed a history as possible regarding the time of onset, duration, intensity, and character of the pain and any associated symptoms.1 Establishing the gestational age early in the evaluation is essential because the likelihood of different etiologies changes with different gestational ages. Accurate knowledge of gestational age is required to make appropriate decisions regarding fetal viability and the need for fetal evaluation. Remember that nausea, vomiting, constipation, increased frequency of urination, and pelvic or abdominal discomfort are frequently experienced in normal pregnancy. Ask the patient to differentiate these normal pregnancy changes from the acute event for which she presents.

Also, ascertain the time course and acuteness of onset.

  • Did the pain begin suddenly or did it grow in intensity?
  • Is it steady or crampy, dull and aching, or sharp and stabbing?
  • Did it occur before or after a meal?
  • Did it awaken the patient from sleep?
  • How well is it localized, and has the location changed?
  • Is it associated with nausea and vomiting; and, if so, did these begin before or after the pain?
  • Does anything make the pain worse, or make it better?

Physical examination

Upon physical examination, findings may be less prominent compared to those of nonpregnant patients with the same disorder.2,3 Peritoneal signs are often absent in pregnancy because of the lifting and stretching of the anterior abdominal wall. The underlying inflammation has no direct contact with the parietal peritoneum, which precludes any muscular response or guarding that would otherwise be expected.4 The uterus can also obstruct and inhibit the movement of the omentum to an area of inflammation, distorting the clinical picture.

To help distinguish extrauterine tenderness from uterine tenderness, performing the examination with the patient in the right or left decubitus position, thus displacing the gravid uterus to one side, may prove helpful. When performing a physical examination of the gravid abdomen, it is essential to recall the changing positions of the intra-abdominal contents at different gestational ages. For example, the appendix is located at the McBurney point in patients in early pregnancy and in nonpregnant patients. After the first trimester, the appendix is progressively displaced upward and laterally, until it is closer to the gallbladder in late pregnancy.5 Such alterations in physical assessment can delay diagnosis, and many authorities attribute the increased morbidity and mortality of acute abdomen in gravid patients to this delay.

When evaluating the gravid patient, the clinician must evaluate 2 patients at the same time, the mother and the fetus. Before the gestational age at which independent viability (if delivery were to occur) is generally expected evaluation of the fetus can be limited to documentation of the presence or absence of fetal heart tones by Doppler or ultrasonography. When the fetus is considered viable, a more thorough evaluation is required. The age of viability varies from institution to institution. Monitor the fetal heart rate and uterine tone continuously throughout the period of evaluation.

A nonreassuring tracing or evidence of fetal distress may suggest an obstetric etiology for the acute abdomen (eg, placental abruption, uterine rupture6 ). A reassuring tracing allows the evaluation to continue at an appropriate pace. Monitoring for uterine contractions throughout the evaluation period and even after definitive treatment is important. A strong correlation is observed between intra-abdominal infectious or inflammatory processes and preterm labor and delivery.

Laboratory evaluation

When evaluating the gravid patient with acute abdominal pain, remember that some very commonly used laboratory tests have altered reference ranges in pregnancy. These changes can make the initial evaluation process somewhat more difficult. For example, an inflammatory process such as appendicitis would be expected to produce an elevated white blood cell count. Yet, pregnancy alone can produce white blood cell counts ranging from 6000-16,000/mm3 in the second and third trimesters and from 20,000-30,000/mm3 in early labor.7

Ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is probably the most frequently used radiologic modality for evaluating a pregnant abdomen. Extensive experience documents the safety of ultrasonography in pregnancy. The maternal gallbladder, pancreas, and kidneys can be evaluated easily. Ultrasonography is also used with graded compression as a diagnostic aid for appendicitis. The size of the gravid abdomen may limit this approach in pregnancy, but some researchers have reported success.8,9 The use of ultrasonography is essential for fetal evaluation. Ultrasonography helps to establish gestational age and fetal viability, to exclude congenital anomalies, and to assess amniotic fluid volume and fetal well-being. This information may become critical later in the management of a gravid patient with an acute abdomen, when decisions regarding delivery, mode of delivery, and the use of tocolytics and steroids must be made.

Radiographs

While ionizing radiation in the evaluation of patients who are pregnant is often a source of anxiety for the practicing clinician, radiation exposure from a single diagnostic procedure does not result in harmful fetal effects.

Estimated Fetal Exposure From Some Common Radiologic Procedures

Open table in new window

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
ProcedureFetal Exposure
Chest radiograph (2 views)0.02-0.07 mrad
Abdominal film (single view)100 mrad
Intravenous pyelography>1 rad*
Hip film (single view)200 mrad
Mammography7-20 mrad
Barium enema or small bowel series2-4 rad
CT (computed tomography) scan head or chest<1 rad
CT scan abdomen and lumbar spine3.5 rad
CT pelvimetry250 mrad
ProcedureFetal Exposure
Chest radiograph (2 views)0.02-0.07 mrad
Abdominal film (single view)100 mrad
Intravenous pyelography>1 rad*
Hip film (single view)200 mrad
Mammography7-20 mrad
Barium enema or small bowel series2-4 rad
CT (computed tomography) scan head or chest<1 rad
CT scan abdomen and lumbar spine3.5 rad
CT pelvimetry250 mrad

*Exposure depends on the number of films. (Table is from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1995.10 )

If multiple diagnostic procedures are needed, remember that exposure to less than 0.05 Gy has not been associated with an increase in fetal anomalies or pregnancy loss. During pregnancy, perform medically indicated diagnostic radiograph procedures when needed, but consider other imaging procedures not associated with ionizing radiation instead of radiographs when possible.10 Due to the possible association of prenatal radiation exposure with childhood cancer,11 use ionizing radiation only when medically necessary and minimize that exposure when possible, without compromising patient care.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

MRI uses magnets rather than ionizing radiation to alter the energy state of hydrogen protons. This may prove useful in the evaluation of the maternal abdomen and of the fetus. Although no adverse fetal effects have been documented, the National Radiological Protection Board advises against the use of MRI in the first trimester.12 Not all MRI contrast agents are approved for use in pregnancy. Intravenous gadolinium crosses the placenta, and the effects on the fetus are not understood. In a series, MRI was found to be useful in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis when ultrasonography was inconclusive.13,14,15,16

Differential diagnosis

Acute abdomen, as it presents with pregnancy, has many possible causes. Clearly, the case of a pregnant patient with acute abdomen is a clinical scenario that overlaps specialties. Do not hesitate to involve a surgeon, obstetrician/gynecologist, and a specialist in maternal-fetal medicine when dealing with this challenging situation. Any cause for acute abdomen can occur coincident with pregnancy. Some clinical conditions are more likely to occur in pregnancy. Other conditions are specific to pregnancy. Thus, a wide range of possible differential diagnoses should be considered.

Incidental to pregnancy

Conditions associated with pregnancy

Due to pregnancy

  • Early pregnancy
    • Ruptured ectopic pregnancy17
    • Septic abortion with peritonitis
    • Acute urinary retention due to retroverted gravid uterus
  • Later pregnancy
    • Red degeneration of myoma
    • Torsion of pedunculated myoma
    • Placental abruption
    • Placenta percreta
    • HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver function, and low platelets) syndrome – Spontaneous rupture of the liver
    • Uterine rupture
    • Chorioamnionitis

Treatment

Treatment of acute abdomen in pregnancy depends on the specific diagnosis.22,23 Indications for emergency surgery are the same for patients who are pregnant as they are for any other patients. If surgery is required but is considered elective, waiting until after the pregnancy is completed is prudent. If surgery is deemed necessary during pregnancy, perform it in the second trimester if possible; the risk of preterm labor and delivery is lower in the second trimester compared to the third, and the risk of spontaneous loss and risks due to medications such as anesthetic agents are lower in the second trimester compared to the first.

Laparoscopy during pregnancy

Laparoscopy has become increasingly popular in the treatment and evaluation of acute abdomen. In the past, pregnancy was considered a contraindication for laparoscopy, but multiple reports of the successful use of diagnostic and therapeutic laparoscopy were later published.24,25

The Hasson technique, an open approach to entering the abdomen, has been suggested to avoid potential injury to the gravid uterus with the Veress needle or trocar. CO2 insufflation of 10-15 mmHg is concerned safe. Due to the CO2 exchange in the peritoneal cavity and concerns over the effects of acidosis on the fetus, the use of capnography during laparoscopy in pregnant patients is recommended.26,27

Advantages of laparoscopy over laparotomy include shortened hospital stay, less need for narcotics, easier postoperative ambulation, and earlier postoperative tolerance of oral intake. Care must be taken to minimize manipulation of the uterus. Adjust the location of trocar placement based on uterine size. Monitor fetal heart tones during the surgical procedure. The surgeon must work closely with the obstetrician to maintain fetal well-being during the surgical procedure. An experienced laparoscopist is important to keep surgical times as short as possible.28

Although laparoscopy is generally accepted as safe, reports of fetal demise after the procedure continue to occur in the literature.29 Several studies have indicated, however, that laparoscopic surgery can be safely performed on pregnant patients during any trimester, without an appreciably increased risk to the mother or fetus.26,27

Obstetrical concerns

Preterm labor and delivery is the most significant threat to the fetus in the management of acute maternal intra-abdominal disease. Insufficient data are available to quantitate the risk, but the severity of the disease process appears to be a major determinant of that risk.30,31,32

The prophylactic effect of tocolytics remains unproven in these patients. If used, tocolytics should be administered with care. Monitor the patient carefully, and bear in mind the potential for pulmonary complications. Magnesium sulfate, beta-mimetics (eg, ritodrine, terbutaline), and indomethacin (if fetus is <32 wk gestation) can be used. Whenever using tocolytic agents, make certain that no contraindications to tocolysis, such as severe placental abruption, chorioamnionitis, or lethal anomalies, are present. If preterm delivery is likely, glucocorticoids can be administered to the mother to decrease the risk of neonatal complications. Avoid glucocorticoids if the mother is at serious risk for significant infection.

Delivery

Base delivery decisions on obstetric indications. The mode of delivery used should also be decided based on obstetric indications. If continuation of the pregnancy is expected to lead to maternal morbidity or mortality, delivery is indicated. If improvement of the maternal condition cannot be expected with delivery, treat the patient with the fetus in utero.

Specific Causes of Acute Abdomen - Appendicitis

Incidence

Appendicitis is the most common nonobstetric cause of surgical emergency in pregnancy. The case-to-delivery ratio ranges from 1:2000 to 1:6000.33,34,35,4 . Pregnancy does not affect the overall incidence of appendicitis, but the severity may be increased in pregnancy. The incidence of perforation is 25% in pregnancy. If surgery is delayed for more than 24 hours the incidence of perforation increases to 66%.36 Appendicitis seems to be more common in the second trimester.2,17,18

History and physical examination

Symptoms include the following:

  • Abdominal pain is almost always present.
    • Pain is located in right lower quadrant in the first trimester.
    • In the second trimester, the appendix is located at the level of the umbilicus.
    • Pain is diffuse or in the right upper quadrant in the third trimester.
  • Nausea is present in nearly all cases.
  • Vomiting is present in two thirds of pregnant patients.
  • Anorexia is present in only one third to two thirds of pregnant patients, while it is present almost universally in nonpregnant patients.2,33,35,37

Signs include the following:

  • Direct abdominal tenderness is observed most commonly and is only rarely absent2,38
  • In the first trimester, tenderness is well localized in the right lower quadrant.
  • Later in pregnancy, the tenderness is in the right periumbilical area, in the right upper quadrant, or is diffuse.
  • Rebound tenderness is present in 55-75% of patients.39,2,38,33,35
  • Abdominal muscle rigidity is observed in 50-65% of patients.40,39,33
  • The Rovsing sign (pain at the McBurney point when pressure is exerted over the descending colon) is observed as frequently in pregnant persons with appendicitis as in nonpregnant persons with appendicitis.
  • Psoas irritation is observed less frequently during pregnancy compared to nonpregnant states37
  • Rectal tenderness is usually present, particularly in the first trimester.2
  • Fever and tachycardia are variably present; they are not sensitive signs.

Workup

  • White blood cell count: In pregnancy, the white blood cell count is often as high as 15,000/mm3. The wide reference range limits the usefulness of white blood cell counts during pregnancy.35 Severe disease can occur with a normal count. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes are often greater than 80% when appendicitis is present.
  • Urinalysis: Pyuria is observed in 10-20% of patients with appendicitis.35 This may represent coincident asymptomatic bacteriuria.
  • Ultrasonography: In some centers, ultrasonography has been used to help diagnose appendicitis.
  • Upright abdominal radiograph: In severe disease, a right-sided mass or free air may be visualized.
  • MRI and CT scanning have been used in difficult cases.

Treatment

Treatment of appendicitis is surgical. Perform surgery, employing either laparotomy or laparoscopy, as soon as the diagnosis is seriously considered. (Laparoscopic appendectomy is the preferred method by most surgeons.) Even if the appendix appears normal, there are 2 reasons to remove it: (1) early disease may be present despite its grossly normal appearance and (2) diagnostic confusion can be avoided if the condition recurs.41

Tailor the surgical approach to the clinical situation. Remember to tilt the operating table 30 º to the patient's left to help bring the uterus away from the surgical site and to improve maternal venous return and cardiac output.

Prognosis

Perforation and abscess formation are more likely to occur in pregnant patients with appendicitis than in nonpregnant patients with appendicitis.39 Some researchers have reported increasing severity in the third trimester.2 while others have not.38,35 Any increase in severity later in pregnancy may be due to a delay in diagnosis. The rate of generalized peritonitis relates directly to the interval of time from symptom onset to diagnosis.42 Maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality rates increase once perforation occurs.38

Specific Causes of Acute Abdomen – Acute Cholecystitis

Incidence

Estimates of occurrence of acute cholecystitis vary widely. The case-to-delivery ratio varies between 1:1130 and 1:12,890.43,44 Asymptomatic gall bladder disease is more common, occurring in 3-4% of pregnant women. Chronic hemolytic conditions, such as sickle cell disease, increase the risk for gallstone formation.

History and physical examination

  • Patients may have a history of previous episodes.
  • Right upper quadrant pain is the most reliable symptom. Pain may radiate to the back.
  • Vomiting occurs in approximately 50% of cases.
  • Fever occurs in very few instances.44
  • Direct tenderness is usually present in the right upper quadrant. Rebound tenderness is rare.
  • Cholecystitis can mimic appendicitis in the third trimester.

Workup

  • Gallstones are present in more than 95% of patients with acute cholecystitis.
  • Ultrasonography is diagnostic and safe.
  • If a radionucleotide scan of the gallbladder is needed, the radiation dose is not prohibitive.
  • Blood tests are of limited value.
  • Leukocytosis is observed in normal pregnancy.
  • Serum alkaline phosphatase levels are normally elevated in pregnancy.
  • Aspartate transferase and alanine transferase levels may help distinguish cholecystitis from hepatitis.
  • Serum amylase levels are elevated transiently in up to a third of patients.45,46 A markedly elevated amylase level suggests pancreatitis.
  • Serum electrolyte evaluations are needed if vomiting has been persistent.

Treatment

Management of symptomatic cholelithiasis is controversial. Some recommend initial nonoperative treatment while others favor early surgical treatment.36

Initial nonoperative treatment, as follows, is supportive in nature:

  • Intravenous fluids
  • Nasogastric suction: This may be necessary if vomiting has been significant
  • Analgesia: Demerol is preferred over morphine. Morphine may produce spasm of the sphincter of Oddi.
  • If symptoms persist or if systemic or local signs are prominent, initiate broad-spectrum antibiotics.45,46

If the patient does not tolerate supportive therapy or has recurrent bouts, surgery is indicated. The timing of surgery for acute cholecystitis is controversial. Some researchers promote the performance of surgery during pregnancy in order to avoid recurrent episodes and hospitalization36,47 ; others promote the delaying of surgery until the postpartum period.48 A growing body of evidence supports the safety of laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy.36,49,50

Laparoscopy can be safely performed during any trimester of pregnancy. Studies comparing conservative and surgical management of cholecystitis revealed the incidence of preterm delivery (3.5% vs 6.0%) and fetal mortality (2.2% vs 1.2%). Fetal mortality in gallstone pancreatitis was 8.0% in a conservatively treated group of patients and 2.6% in a surgically treated group, suggesting that early surgical management is preferable.51

Prognosis

Complications can occur, including empyema, perforation, pancreatitis, and failure to respond to medical management. Patients diagnosed with symptomatic cholelithiasis during the first trimester have a recurrence rate of 92%; during the second trimester, the recurrence rate is 64%, and during the third trimester, the rate is 44%. Compared with patients who undergo cholecystectomy, patients in whom surgery is delayed experience increases in hospitalization, spontaneous abortion, preterm labor, and preterm delivery. Fetal loss occurs in 10-60% of pregnant patients with gallstone pancreatitis.26,27

Specific Causes of Acute Abdomen - Pancreatitis

Incidence

Pancreatitis is an unusual and potentially devastating occurrence. The case-to-delivery ratio ranges from 1:1289 to 1:3333.52,53,54,55 The issue of whether pregnancy predisposes patients to pancreatitis is controversial.19,52,54,56,57 Risk factors include the following:

  • Cholelithiasis: This is the most common risk factor in pregnant patients with pancreatitis, observed in 90% of pregnancy-associated pancreatitis.53,55,56,57,58,59
  • Alcohol use
  • Hyperlipidemia
  • Hyperparathyroidism
  • Abdominal trauma
  • Viral infections

History and physical examination

  • The presentation is similar to that of patients who are not pregnant.
  • Acute abdominal pain is observed in 75% of cases.53
  • Onset is usually sudden.
  • Pain is located in the epigastrium.
  • Nausea and vomiting are usually present and may be severe.
  • Low-grade fever may be present.
  • Jaundice is observed in a few patients.
  • Epigastric tenderness is the most reliable physical finding.
  • Peritoneal signs are minimal or absent.
  • Bowel sounds are diminished.

Workup

  • Serum amylase testing is the most useful test for diagnosis. During normal pregnancy, amylase levels are slightly elevated.58,60 View such slight elevations with caution because they can occur with other disease entities (eg, intestinal perforation, infarction21 , intestinal obstruction).
  • Other lab values may be helpful, including the following:
    • Hyperglycemia
    • Hyperbilirubinemia
    • Hypocalcemia
    • Hemoconcentration
    • Electrolyte abnormalities
  • Ultrasonographic scanning of the upper abdomen may be helpful for confirming gallbladder disease.

Treatment

Initial treatment is supportive.

  • Provide intravenous fluids for hypovolemia.
  • Correct electrolyte imbalances.
  • Correct glucose levels.
  • Correct calcium disturbances.
  • Withhold oral intake.
  • With severe disease, continuous nasogastric suctioning may be necessary.
  • Total parenteral nutrition may be needed if disease is prolonged.61
  • If gallbladder disease is causative, surgery can be performed when the patient's condition stabilizes.

Prognosis

Acute symptoms last for approximately 6 days.57 The maternal mortality rate ranges from 0-37%,52,53,55,57,59 while the perinatal mortality rate is approximately 11% or less.52,57,59 The risk of perinatal death increases with the severity of disease.

Specific Causes of Acute Abdomen - Intestinal Obstruction

Incidence

The case-to-delivery ratio ranges from 1:3600 to 1:5700.62,63,64 The frequency of this condition is increasing, due to a higher incidence of intra-abdominal surgery. Intestinal obstruction rarely occurs during the first trimester and occurs with equal frequency in the second and third trimester and puerperium.

Causes

Simple obstruction is the most common cause, most likely due to prior surgery and adhesions. Volvulus is the second most common etiology and is also predominantly due to adhesions.65,66 Both small intestinal and cecal or sigmoid volvulus have been reported in the absence of prior adhesions. Increased mobility of the bowel and displacement of the bowel into the upper abdomen by the growing uterus are implicated in these cases. Intussusception is less common, and incarcerated inguinal or femoral hernia and carcinoma are extremely rare.

History and physical examination

  • Abdominal pain is observed in 90% of patients and may be constant or periodic, mimicking labor. Pain may radiate to the flank, imitating pyelonephritis.63 The severity of pain may not reflect the severity of disease.67
  • Vomiting is a highly variable symptom. If the obstruction is more proximal, vomiting occurs earlier in the course. Severe obstruction can be present with no vomiting.63
  • Constipation is different from the usual constipation in pregnancy. Patients experience a complete cessation of stool and flatus.

Physical findings

  • Classic distended tender abdomen with high-pitched bowel sounds is the exception in pregnancy.
  • Abdominal tenderness may be absent.67
  • Pressure on the uterus often causes pain due to transmitted pressure to the bowel, misleading the clinician to consider a uterine process.
  • Bowel sounds are often normal upon presentation.
  • A tender cystic mass can sometimes be palpated.68,69
  • Rebound tenderness, fever, and tachycardia occur late in the course.

Workup

  • Leukocytosis: Leukocytosis may be present. Remember that leukocytosis is also observed in normal pregnancy.
  • Electrolyte abnormalities
  • Hemoconcentration
  • Elevated serum amylase levels
  • Radiograph: An upright plain film of the abdomen is the best initial study. Do not avoid diagnostic radiography out of concern for fetal effects. This diagnosis is difficult to make without the use of radiography. Sequential films may be needed.67,70

Treatment

Treatment is surgical, the same as for patients who are not pregnant. Clinical management includes the following:

  • Correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances.
  • Perform decompression of the bowel.
  • Help relieve the obstruction.
  • Resect nonviable tissue.
  • Fluid management is critical during pregnancy because uterine blood flow depends on normal maternal blood volume
  • A midline abdominal incision is optimal.

Prognosis

Intestinal obstruction is a serious complication in pregnancy, with maternal mortality rates ranging from 10-20%. Perinatal mortality rates range from 20-30%.64,66,71

Specific causes of acute abdomen – Rare causes encountered during pregnancy

  • Mesenteric venous thrombosis
    • This is an extremely rare but potentially lethal event. The exact incidence is not known. Most reported cases have occurred in settings where dehydration (eg, from hyperemesis gravidarum) complicated an underlying hypercoagulable state (eg, factor V Leiden).
    • The treatment is resection of the involved segment with institution of chronic anticoagulation. The surgeon needs to have a low threshold for reoperation, as extension of the process to adjacent areas of the bowel is common.
  • Rupture of visceral artery aneurysm
    • Any of the visceral vessels may become aneurysmal, but splenic artery aneurysms are probably the most common and the most apt to rupture during the puerperium. Only scattered case reports are to be found in the literature.
    • The treatment is emergency splenectomy. Because of the lethality of this complication, elective aneurysm resection or angiographic coiling is recommended when these lesions are noted in women of child-bearing age.

Specific Causes of Acute Abdomen – Urolithiasis

Incidence

The case-to-delivery ratio is approximately 1:1600.71,72

History and physical examination

  • Pain, usually in the flank - Almost always the presenting complaint
  • Nausea and vomiting
  • Dysuria
  • Urgency
  • Fever
  • Gross hematuria
  • Possible history of a prior episode in 25%.71,72
  • Costovertebral angle tenderness - Almost always present
  • Abdominal tenderness - May be observed

Workup

  • Patients may have coexisting urinary tract infection.
  • Microscopic hematuria is observed in 75% of cases. The absence of hematuria does not exclude a stone.
  • Strain urine in search of a stone.
  • Perform an ultrasonographic scan on the urinary tract to check for evidence of obstruction.
  • Remember the physiologic dilatation of the right side in the second half of pregnancy.

Treatment

Treatment depends on the size and location of the stone, the degree of obstruction, the severity of symptoms, and the presence of infection. Most stones pass with hydration. Minimally invasive procedures can be considered, including ureteral stent placement, ureteroscopic retrieval, and percutaneous nephrostomy. Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy has not been approved for use in pregnancy.

Prognosis

A good perinatal outcome is expected, unless a severe infection is present.

For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Pregnancy and Reproduction Center and Kidneys and Urinary System Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Ectopic Pregnancy and Blood in the Urine.

Gynecologic Causes of Acute Abdomen in Pregnancy

Rupture of ovarian cyst

Incidence

Ovarian cysts occur in pregnancy with a frequency ranging from 1 in 81 to 1 in 1000.73,74,75,76 Rupture of ovarian cysts is rare.

History and physical examination

  • Patients may have a history of mild trauma, such as caused by a fall, intercourse, or a vaginal examination.
  • Rupture may occur spontaneously.
  • The patient may have mild chronic lower abdominal discomfort that suddenly intensifies.
  • Upon physical examination, the lower abdomen may demonstrate peritoneal signs, and tenderness and guarding may be present.

Workup

  • The hemoglobin level may drop.
  • Ultrasonography can help to detect the presence of fluid in the cul-de-sac.

Treatment

  • Treatment is surgical.
  • Conserve as much ovarian tissue as possible.

Prognosis

In the absence of malignancy, the prognosis is excellent.77

Adnexal torsion

Incidence

Adnexal torsion is unusual and occurs predominantly in teenagers and young women. Pregnancy predisposes to adnexal torsion, with 1 in 5 adnexal torsions occurring during pregnancy.20,78 The condition is associated with an ovarian mass in 50-60% of patients, and the mass is most often a dermoid. Adnexal torsion occurs more frequently on the right than on the left, by a ratio of 3:2. It occurs most frequently in the first trimester, occasionally in the second, and rarely in the third.78

History and physical examination

  • Patients present with acute, severe, colicky, unilateral, lower abdominal and pelvic pain.
  • Two thirds of patients also have nausea and vomiting.79,80
  • Patients may provide a history of prior intermittent episodes of similar pain.
  • A low-grade fever can occur.
  • A tender adnexal mass is palpated in 90% of patients with adnexal torsion.

Workup

  • If adnexal necrosis has occurred, leukocytosis and fever can occur. Leukocytosis is also observed in normal pregnancy.
  • Ultrasonography can be useful for documenting the presence of an ovarian cyst.
  • Color Doppler findings can possibly help document absent ovarian flow in the central ovarian parenchyma.81
  • If the diagnosis is uncertain, diagnostic laparoscopy can be used.

Treatment

Treatment is surgical, with preservation of as much ovarian tissue as possible.77 If the tissue is necrotic, removal is warranted and unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is appropriate. If a partial torsion is confirmed, conservative management is appropriate. Untwist the pedicle, remove the cyst, and stabilize the ovary. If removal of the corpus luteum is necessary prior to 10 weeks of gestation, progesterone supplementation is warranted.

Prognosis

Pregnancy outcome associated with adnexal torsion generally is good.80

Degenerating myoma

Incidence

Red degeneration occurs in 5-10% of pregnant women with myomas. Degenerating myoma often occurs between 12 and 20 weeks' gestation.

History and physical examination

  • Patients present with an acute onset of significant localized abdominal pain.
  • They may experience vomiting and tenderness over a mass in the uterus.
  • Patients may experience a low-grade fever.77

Workup

Ultrasonography is helpful when used directly over the area of pain. A degenerating myoma has a mixed echodense or echolucent appearance.

Treatment

During pregnancy, treatment is medical in nature because red degeneration is a self-limited process. Treatment includes analgesia with narcotic or anti-inflammatory agents. If narcotics are ineffective, a short course of indomethacin can provide effective pain relief. Because indomethacin has fetal effects, including oligohydramnios and partial constriction of the fetal ductus arteriosus, its use is limited to less than 32 weeks. Patients should be monitored closely.

Prognosis

Pregnancy outcome associated with red degeneration usually is good.

Obstetric Causes of Acute Abdomen

Placental abruption

Incidence

Incidence of placental abruption varies depending on the population. Generally, abruption occurs in 1 in 150 deliveries, but the rate ranges from 1 in 75 to 1 in 225 deliveries.82,83 Risk increases with (1) hypertension, (2) preterm premature rupture of the membranes, (3) cocaine abuse, (4) cigarette smoking, and (5) uterine myoma.

History and physical examination

Symptoms include the following:

  • Vaginal bleeding (78%)
  • Uterine tenderness and back pain (66%)
  • Uterine contractions (22%)

Signs include the following:82 :

  • Fundal tenderness
  • High frequency of contractions or hypertonus (34%)
  • Nonreassuring fetal heart rate (60%)
  • Intrauterine fetal demise (15%)
  • In advanced cases, shock, evidence of disseminated intravascular coagulation, or renal failure possible

Workup

  • Monitor the fetus for signs of distress.
  • Monitor contractions for evidence of hypertonus.
  • Obtain a complete blood cell count, coagulation profile, and type and screen.
  • Perform the Kleihauer-Betke test.
  • Ultrasonography can be performed, but, at most, only 25% of placental abruptions are detected.

Treatment

At term, delivery is treatment. The mode of delivery depends on obstetrical indications. When remote from term and if the abruption is mild, conservative management can be attempted with intravenous fluid, tocolytics, bed rest, steroids, and continuous fetal monitoring.

Prognosis

Maternal morbidity depends on the presence of consumptive coagulopathy, shock, and renal failure. Perinatal mortality rates range from 20-35%.

Uterine rupture

Incidence

The frequency of uterine rupture varies widely among different institutions. The case-to-delivery ratio ranges from 1 in 1235 to 1 in 3000.6,84,85

History and physical examination

Symptoms include the following:

  • Severe abdominal pain
  • Chest pain from hemoperitoneum

Signs include the following:

  • Nonreassuring fetal heart rate pattern, severe bradycardia (most common sign)
  • Loss of station of presenting part
  • Vaginal bleeding
  • Hypovolemia
  • Possible history of prior uterine surgery or uterine anomaly

Workup

  • Diagnosis is clinical.
  • Ultrasonography may be useful if immediately available.

Treatment

Treatment consists of immediate cesarean delivery with probable hysterectomy. Repair of the uterus may be possible in select cases. Blood products may be needed.

Prognosis

The maternal mortality rate reportedly is as high as 44% in Zambia.86 Prompt diagnosis and surgery, large amounts of blood products, and antibiotics improve maternal outcome. Fetal mortality rates range from 50-75%.84,87

Hepatic rupture

Incidence

The case-to-delivery ratio is 1:45,000.88 Hepatic rupture may be spontaneous. Most are associated with preeclampsia and eclampsia.89 HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets) is often present.

History and physical examination

  • Right upper quadrant pain and tenderness
  • Possible history of pregnancy-induced hypertension
  • Hemorrhagic shock
  • Distended abdomen

Workup

Diagnosis can be confirmed based on CT scan findings.

Treatment

  • Correct any associated coagulopathy. Recombinant factor VIIa has been used to achieve hemostasis and to avert operative management.90,91
  • Most patients have been treated operatively, but there is an increasing trend toward nonoperative management (which is consistent with the current principles of liver trauma management in the nonpregnant patient). In surgery, do as follows:
    • Repair the liver laceration, if possible.
    • Use packing.
    • Remember that hepatic artery ligation and resection may be needed but can almost always be avoided.

Prognosis

Maternal mortality rates range from 20-75%.88

Ruptured ectopic pregnancy

Incidence

Ruptured ectopic pregnancy occurs in more than 1 in 100 pregnancies in the United States.17

History and physical examination

  • Pain (abdominal or pelvic) is the most frequent symptom, occurring in 95% of patients.
  • Amenorrhea with abnormal uterine bleeding is observed in 60-80% of patients.
  • Gastrointestinal symptoms are present in 80% of patients.
  • Dizziness or syncope occurs in 58% of patients.92
  • Hypovolemia is a possible finding.
  • Patients may have a pelvic mass.

Workup

  • Perform a complete blood cell count, quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) evaluation, and type and screen.
  • Ultrasonography is helpful.
  • If the beta-hCG level is more than 6000 mIU/mL, the gestational sac should be visible in the uterus with an abdominal probe.
  • If the beta-hCG level is 1000-2000 mIU/mL, a gestational sac should be seen in the uterus with a vaginal probe.

Treatment

Treatment is surgical, with laparoscopy or laparotomy. Linear salpingotomy, linear salpingostomy, or salpingectomy can be performed. Blood products may be needed.

Prognosis

The maternal mortality rate is 3.8 cases per 10,000 population,93 which is 10 times greater than for vaginal delivery and 50 times greater than for induced abortion.92

Keywords

acute abdomen and pregnancy, pregnancy complications, acute pancreatitis, ectopic pregnancy, placental abruption, ovarian cyst ruptured, ovarian cyst rupture, ruptured ectopic pregnancy, complications of pregnancy

 


More on Acute Abdomen and Pregnancy

References
Further Reading
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[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Further Reading

Related eMedicine topics:
Cholecystitis, Acute
Ectopic Pregnancy
Pancreatitis, Acute
Pregnancy and Urolithiasis 
Trauma and Pregnancy

Clinical guidelines:
ACR Appropriateness Criteria® acute abdominal pain and fever or suspected abdominal abscess.
American College of Radiology - Medical Specialty Society. 1996 (revised 2006). 7 pages. NGC:005138

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® suspected adnexal masses.
American College of Radiology - Medical Specialty Society. 1996 (revised 2005). 10 pages. NGC:004653

Diagnostic laparoscopy for acute abdominal pain. In: Diagnostic laparoscopy guidelines.
Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons - Medical Specialty Society. 1998 Apr (revised 2007 Nov). 7 pages. NGC:006830

Preterm prelabour rupture of membranes.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists - Medical Specialty Society. 2006 Nov. 11 pages. NGC:005920

Clinical trials:
Effect of Fetal Ovarian Cyst Aspiration to Prevent Torsion

Monitoring of the Inflammatory Response of Patients With Premature Rupture of Membranes With Bedside Tests (EFFARM)

Safety and Efficacy Study of Intentional Delivery in Women With Preterm and Prelabour Rupture of the Membranes


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Keywords

acute abdomen and pregnancy, pregnancy complications, acute pancreatitis, ectopic pregnancy, placental abruption, ovarian cyst ruptured, ovarian cyst rupture, ruptured ectopic pregnancy, complications of pregnancy

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Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Dana Taylor, MD, FACS, Assistant Professor of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tennessee; Consulting Surgeon, University General Surgeons, PC
Dana Taylor, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma, and Southeastern Surgical Congress
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Robin Perry, MD, Vice Chief, Associate Program Director, Associate Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Cooper Hospital and UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Robin Perry, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Karen Loeb Lifford, MD, Director of General Gynecology, Associate Program Director, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Instructor, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School
Karen Loeb Lifford, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Massachusetts Medical Society, and Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

CME Editor

Paolo Zamboni, MD, Professor of Surgery, Chief of Day Surgery Unit, Chair of Vascular Diseases Center, University of Ferrara, Italy
Paolo Zamboni, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Venous Forum and New York Academy of Sciences
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Carl V Smith, MD, The Distinguished Chris J and Marie A Olson Chair of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center
Carl V Smith, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, American Medical Association, Arkansas Medical Society, Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Central Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Council of University Chairs of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Nebraska Medical Association, and Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
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