Hemothorax Workup

  • Author: Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Jeffrey C Milliken, MD   more...
 
Updated: Sep 26, 2011
 

Approach Considerations

The upright chest radiograph is the ideal primary diagnostic study in the evaluation of hemothorax. Additional imaging studies such as ultrasonography or CT scan may sometimes be required for identification and quantification of a hemothorax noted on a plain chest radiograph.

In some cases of nontraumatic hemothorax, especially those resulting from metastatic pleural implants, patients may present with the finding of a new pleural effusion of unknown etiology and hemothorax may not be identified until the initial diagnostic needle aspiration is performed.

Pleural fluid hematocrit

Measurement of the hematocrit of pleural fluid is virtually never needed in a patient with a traumatic hemothorax, but may be indicated for the analysis of a bloody effusion from a nontraumatic cause. In such cases, a pleural effusion with a hematocrit value more than 50% of that of the circulating hematocrit is considered a hemothorax.

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Chest Radiography

Plain radiography of the upright chest may be adequate to establish diagnosis by showing blunting at the costophrenic angle or an air-fluid interface if a hemopneumothorax is present. (See the image below.) If the patient cannot be positioned upright, a supine chest radiograph may reveal apical capping of fluid surrounding the superior pole of the lung. A lateral extrapulmonary density may suggest fluid in the pleural space.

In the normal unscarred pleural space, a hemothorax is noted as a meniscus of fluid blunting the costophrenic angle or diaphragmatic surface and tracking up the pleural margins of the chest wall when viewed on the upright chest x-ray film. This is essentially the same chest radiographic appearance found with any pleural effusion.

In cases in which pleural scarring or symphysis is present, the collection may not be free to occupy the most dependent position within the thorax, but will fill whatever free pleural space is available. This situation may not create the classic appearance of a fluid layer on a chest x-ray film.

In the acute trauma setting, the portable supine chest radiograph may be the first and only view available from which to make definitive decisions regarding therapy. The presence and size of a hemothorax is much more difficult to evaluate on supine films. While as much as 400-500 mL of blood is required to obliterate the costophrenic angle on an upright chest radiograph, as much as 1000 mL of blood may be missed when viewing a portable supine chest x-ray film. Only a general haziness of the affected hemithorax may be noted.

In blunt trauma cases, hemothorax is frequently associated with other chest injuries visible on the chest radiograph, such as rib fractures (see below), pneumothorax, or a widening of the superior mediastinum.

Left hemothorax in a patient with rib fractures. Left hemothorax in a patient with rib fractures.
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Ultrasonography

Trauma ultrasonography is used at some trauma centers in the initial evaluation of patients for hemothorax. Even with the use of chest radiography and helical CT, some injuries can remain undetected. In particular, patients with penetrating chest injuries may harbor serious cardiac injury and a pericardial effusion that may be clinically difficult to determine. Bedside echocardiography can provide immediate, accurate information regarding the pericardium and the need for immediate surgery. It can also improve patient outcome.[28]

One drawback of ultrasonography for the identification of traumatic hemothorax is that associated injuries readily seen on chest radiographs in the trauma patient, such as bony injuries, widened mediastinum, and pneumothorax, are not readily identifiable on chest ultrasonograph images. Ultrasonography more likely plays a complementary role in specific cases in which the chest x-ray findings of hemothorax are equivocal.

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Computed Tomography

Thoracic CT scanning (see the image below) has a definite role in evaluation, particularly if plain radiography results are ambiguous or initial therapy is inadequate.[29] CT scan is a highly accurate diagnostic study for pleural fluid or blood, and is particularly helpful in localizing loculated collections of blood.

Contrast enhanced CT scan of a patient with right Contrast enhanced CT scan of a patient with right hemothorax.

In the trauma setting, CT does not hold a primary role in the diagnosis of hemothorax but is complementary to chest radiography. Because many victims of blunt trauma do undergo a chest and/or abdominal CT scan evaluation, hemothorax not evident on initial chest radiographs might be identified and treated.

Currently, CT scan is of greatest value later in the course of the chest trauma patient for localization and quantification of any retained collections of clot within the pleural space.

Although multidetector CT allows for the accurate diagnosis of most traumatic injuries, in pediatric patients it should be used in selected cases only. Routine use would result in an unacceptably high radiation exposure to a large number of patients without proven clinical benefit.[30]

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD  Professor and Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport

Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Surgeons, American Surgical Association, Phi Beta Kappa, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Southern Surgical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Thomas Scanlin, MD  Chief, Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Cystic Fibrosis Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School

Thomas Scanlin, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, American Thoracic Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Denise Serebrisky, MD  Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Director, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Lewis M Fraad Department of Pediatrics, Jacobi Medical Center; Director, Jacobi Asthma and Allergy Center for Children

Denise Serebrisky, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Charles Callahan, DO  Professor, Deputy Chief of Clinical Services, Walter Reed Army Medical Center

Charles Callahan, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Osteopathic Pediatricians, American Thoracic Society, Association of Military Surgeons of the US, and Christian Medical & Dental Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Shreekanth V Karwande, MBBS  Chair, Professor, Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine and Medical Center

Shreekanth V Karwande, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Heart Association, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Western Thoracic Surgical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michael R Bye, MD  Professor of Clinical Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons; Attending Physician, Pediatric Pulmonary Medicine, Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital of New York Presbyterian, Columbia University Medical Center

Michael R Bye, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Chest Physicians, and American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Jeffrey C Milliken, MD  Chief, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of California at Irvine Medical Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine

Jeffrey C Milliken, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Cardiology, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Heart Association, American Society for Artificial Internal Organs, California Medical Association, International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, Phi Beta Kappa, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, Southwest Oncology Group, and Western Surgical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Jane M Eggerstedt, MD, and Allen Fagenholz, MD, to the development and writing of the source articles.

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Left hemothorax in a patient with rib fractures.
Upright posteroanterior (PA) chest radiograph of a patient with right hemothorax.
Contrast enhanced CT scan of a patient with right hemothorax.
 
 
 
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