eMedicine Specialties > Infectious Diseases > Skin and Soft-Tissue Infections

Gas Gangrene

Author: Hoi Ho, MD, Associate Dean for Faculty Affairs and Development, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Director, Clinical Skills and Clinical Simulation Center, Paul L Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center; Consulting Staff, Thomason Hospital
Coauthor(s): Lorenzo B Aragon, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Family Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center; Medical Director, Ambrosio Guillen Texas State Veterans Home; Jason W Tcheng, MS, Texas Tech University School of Medicine; Enes Kanlic, MD, Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Tech University Health Science Center
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Jan 28, 2009

Introduction

Background

Gas gangrene and clostridial myonecrosis are interchangeable terms used to describe an infection of muscle tissue by toxin-producing clostridia. In 1861, Louis Pasteur identified the first clostridial species, Clostridium butyricum. In 1892 and later, Welch, Nuttall, and other scientists isolated a gram-positive anaerobic bacillus from gangrenous wounds. This organism, originally known as Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus, was later renamed Bacillus perfringens, and then Clostridium welchii. The organism is now named Clostridium perfringens.

Gas gangrene gained recognition for its wartime incidence, during which only a paucity of civilian cases occurred. During World War I, gas gangrene complicated 6% of open fractures and 1% of all open wounds. These figures steadily decreased to 0.7% during World War II, 0.2% during the Korean War, and 0.002% during the Vietnam War. No cases of gas gangrene were reported during the battle in the Falkland Islands in 1982.¹

Despite numerous casualties caused by enormous firepower and improvised explosive devices (IEDs), no cases of gas gangrene have been reported among US soldiers during the ongoing operation Iraqi Freedom. The lethality of war wounds has decreased from 24% during operation Desert Storm (1991) to an unprecedented 10% during operation Iraqi Freedom. The US military medicine has credited this to the mobility of the forward surgical teams (FSTs) in keeping up with the fast-moving military units.^2,3,4

Pathophysiology

Gas gangrene is caused by an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming bacillus of the genus Clostridium. C perfringens is the most common etiologic agent that causes gas gangrene. Other common clostridial species that cause gas gangrene include Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium novyi, Clostridium fallax, Clostridium histolyticum, and Clostridium tertium.⁵

These organisms are true saprophytes and are ubiquitous in soil and dust. Clostridia have been isolated from the mucous membranes of humans, including the GI tract and the female genital tract. Clostridia may also colonize the skin, especially around the perineum. Clostridia are obligate anaerobes, but some species are relatively aerotolerant. Bacterial multiplication and the production of soluble proteins called exotoxins require a low oxygen tension.

Other bacteria are also capable of producing gas, and nonclostridial organisms have been isolated in 60-85% cases of gas gangrene. A recent clinical series on gas gangrene demonstrated a predominance (83.3%) of aerobic gram-negative bacilli in wound cultures compared with anaerobic gram-positive bacilli, with Clostridium species accounting for 4.5% of the isolates. The most frequently identified aerobic gram-negative bacteria were Escherichia coli , Proteus species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Klebsiella pneumoniae.^5,6,7

C perfringens produces at least 20 exotoxins. The most important exotoxins and their biologic effects are as follows:

• Alpha toxin - Lethal,* lecithinase, necrotizing, hemolytic, cardiotoxic
• Beta toxin - Lethal,* necrotizing
• Epsilon toxin - Lethal,* permease
• Iota toxin - Lethal,* necrotizing
• Delta toxin - Lethal,* hemolysin
• Phi toxin - Hemolysin, cytolysin
• Kappa toxin - Lethal,* collagenase, gelatinase, necrotizing
• Lambda toxin - Protease
• Mu toxin - Hyaluronidase
• Nu toxin - Lethal,* deoxyribonuclease, hemolytic, necrotizing
• *Lethal as tested by injection in mice

The precise role of these exotoxins in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene is not entirely clear; however, alpha-toxin is apparently of utmost importance. The alpha-toxin is a 370-residue zinc metalloenzyme that has phospholipase-C activity (ie, lecithinase) and causes cell destruction by hydrolysis of key cell membrane components. This toxin can cause lysis of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, fibroblasts, and muscle cells. Strains that do not produce alpha-toxin are less virulent, underscoring its importance. Purified alpha-toxin has a myocardial suppressant effect in vitro and causes shock when injected into animals.⁸

The phi-toxin is a hemolysin. Although it does not directly suppress myocardial function in vitro, it contributes to myocardial suppression in vivo, possibly by increasing the synthesis of secondary mediators that do suppress myocardial function in vitro. At higher concentrations, the phi-toxin can cause extensive cellular degeneration and direct vascular injury.

The kappa-toxin produced by C perfringens is a collagenase responsible for destruction of blood vessels and connective tissue. Other toxins include a deoxyribonuclease and hyaluronidase.

Contamination with clostridial spores in posttraumatic or postoperative lesions establishes the initial stage of infection. Local wound conditions are more important than the degree of clostridial contamination in the development of gas gangrene. Disrupted or necrotic tissue provides the necessary enzymes and a low oxidation/reduction potential, allowing for spore germination. Foreign bodies, premature wound closure, and devitalized muscle reduce the spore inoculum necessary to cause infection in laboratory animals.

The typical incubation period for gas gangrene is frequently short (ie, <24 h), but incubation periods of 1 hour to 6 weeks have been reported. Self-perpetuating destruction of tissue occurs via a rapidly multiplying microbial population and the production of locally and systemically acting exotoxins. Local effects include necrosis of muscle and subcutaneous fat and thrombosis of blood vessels. Marked edema may further compromise blood supply to the region. Fermentation of glucose is probably the main mechanism of gas production in gas gangrene. In C septicum spontaneous gas gangrene, nitrogen is the predominant gas component (74.5%), followed by oxygen (16.1%), hydrogen (5.9%), and carbon dioxide (3.4%). Production of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gas begins late and dissects along muscle bellies and fascial planes. These local effects create an environment that facilitates rapid spread of the infection.⁹

Systemically, exotoxins may cause severe hemolysis. Hemoglobin levels may drop to very low levels and, when occurring with hypotension, may cause acute tubular necrosis and renal failure. A rapidly progressive infection can quickly result in shock. The mechanism of shock is poorly understood. Unconcentrated filtrate from C perfringens, purified alpha-toxin, and purified phi-toxins cause hypotension, bradycardia, and decreased cardiac output when injected into laboratory animals. Because alpha-toxins and phi-toxins are lipophilic and may remain locally bound to tissue plasma membranes, the toxins may stimulate synthesis of secondary mediators that cause cardiovascular abnormalities.

Frequency

United States

Clostridia species are ubiquitous and widely distributed in the soil, especially in cultivated land. The density of clostridia in the soil is a contributing factor in the development of trauma-related gas gangrene. Civilian cases of gas gangrene are more common, with approximately 3000 cases per year. Gas gangrene can be classified as posttraumatic, postoperative, or spontaneous. Posttraumatic gas gangrene accounts for 60% of the overall incidence; most cases involve automobile collisions.¹⁰

From 1998-2002, C septicum was implicated in causing serious infections in recipients of contaminated musculoskeletal-tissue allografts. Recently, Clostridium sordellii, an uncommon human pathogen, caused fatal toxic shock syndrome, bacteremia, and extensive endometritis in 4 young women who underwent medical abortion with oral mifepristone and vaginal misoprostol.¹¹

International

From April 2000 to June 2000, several users of injection drugs in Scotland, Ireland, and England developed serious clostridial infections (C novyi and C perfringens) complicated by a high mortality rate (97%). Most of these patients reported injecting heroin intramuscularly within the previous two weeks.¹²

A tsunami ravaged Indonesia in December 2004 and killed more than 200,000 Indonesians. Soaking in contaminated water, several injured persons later died of tetanus or gas gangrene.

In May 2008, the Sichuan earthquake in China caused more than 70,000 deaths and approximately 400,000 injuries; several injured persons developed gas gangrene and later underwent amputations.

Mortality/Morbidity

Gas gangrene is undoubtedly an infection that carries a very high mortality rate. The reported mortality rates vary widely, with a rate of 25% in most recent studies. The mortality rate approaches 100% in individuals with spontaneous gas gangrene and in those in whom treatment is delayed.¹³

Sex

Gas gangrene has no reported sexual predilection, and the sex of the individual does not affect the outcome.

Age

Although age is not a prognostic factor in gas gangrene, advanced age and comorbid conditions are associated with a higher likelihood of mortality.

Clinical

History

The history in patients with gas gangrene depends on the precipitating factors of the infection. Most patients with posttraumatic gas gangrene have sustained serious injury to the skin or soft tissues or have experienced open fractures. Patients with postoperative gas gangrene have frequently undergone recent surgery of the GI or biliary tract. In contrast, the history is usually unremarkable in patients with occult malignancy–associated spontaneous gas gangrene.

• A sudden onset of pain is usually the first symptom of gas gangrene. The pain gradually worsens but spreads only as the underlying infection spreads.
• Some patients report a feeling of heaviness in the affected extremity.
• A low-grade fever and apathetic mental status may develop.

Physical

• Local swelling and a serosanguineous exudate appear soon after the onset of pain.
  • The skin characteristically turns to a bronze color, then progresses to a blue-black color with skin blebs and hemorrhagic bullae.
  • Within hours, the entire region may become markedly edematous.
  • The wound may be nonodorous or may have a sweet mousy odor.
  • Crepitus follows gas production; at times, crepitus may not be detected with palpation owing to brawny edema.
  • Pain and tenderness to palpation disproportionate to wound appearance are common findings.
• Tachycardia disproportionate to body temperature is common, and the patient may report a feeling of impending doom.
• Late signs of gas gangrene include hypotension, renal failure, and a paradoxical heightening of mental acuity.

Causes

Gas gangrene can be classified as posttraumatic, postoperative, or spontaneous.

• Posttraumatic gas gangrene accounts for 60% of all gas gangrene cases.
  • Most of these cases involve automobile collisions.
  • Other complications of trauma arise from crush injuries, compound fractures, gunshot wounds, thermal or electrical burns, and frostbite.
  • Farm or industrial injuries contaminated with soil are especially prone to developing gas gangrene.
  • Intramuscular or subcutaneous injections with insulin, epinephrine, quinine, or cocaine are rare antecedent events leading to gas gangrene.
    
    

    

    A patient developed gas gangrene after injecting cocaine. Clostridium septicum was isolated in both blood and wound cultures.

    [ CLOSE WINDOW ]

    

    A patient developed gas gangrene after injecting cocaine. Clostridium septicum was isolated in both blood and wound cultures.

• Postoperative clostridial infections follow cases of colon resection; ruptured appendix; bowel perforation; and biliary or other GI surgery, including laparoscopic cholecystectomy and colonoscopy. Septic back-street abortions are the main cause of uterine gas gangrene.
• Spontaneous gas gangrene without external wound or injury occurs frequently in patients who have serious underlying conditions.
  • Colorectal adenocarcinoma is the most prevalent risk factor in this group. Hematologic malignancy is also a major premorbid condition.
  • In children, neutropenia, either induced by chemotherapy or cyclic in nature, represents the single most important risk factor for spontaneous C septicum infections.
  • The remaining cases are associated with diabetes or neutropenic colitis. In many cases, no predisposing condition can be found.
  • Although C perfringens and C septicum infections are commonly reported, C septicum infection predominates. Patients with C septicum infections have overt or occult malignancies approximately 5 times more often than patients with other clostridial infections. In a large series of nontraumatic C septicum myonecrosis, malignant tumors were identified in 92% of patients; of these, 58% had colonic adenocarcinomas.^14,9

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