Human T-Cell Lymphotrophic Viruses Differential Diagnoses
- Author: Ewa Maria Szczypinska, MD; Chief Editor: Burke A Cunha, MD more...
Differential Diagnoses
- Castleman disease
- Cytomegalovirus
- Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection
- HIV Disease
- Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin
- Metastatic disease
- Syphilis
Gallo RC. The discovery of the first human retrovirus: HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. Retrovirology. Mar 2 2005;2:17. [Medline].
Poiesz BJ, Ruscetti FW, Gazdar AF, Bunn PA, Minna JD, Gallo RC. Detection and isolation of type C retrovirus particles from fresh and cultured lymphocytes of a patient with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Dec 1980;77(12):7415-9. [Medline].
Kalyanaraman VS, Sarngadharan MG, Robert-Guroff M, Miyoshi I, Golde D, Gallo RC. A new subtype of human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-II) associated with a T-cell variant of hairy cell leukemia. Science. Nov 5 1982;218(4572):571-3. [Medline].
Proietti FA, Carneiro-Proietti AB, Catalan-Soares BC, Murphy EL. Global epidemiology of HTLV-I infection and associated diseases. Oncogene. Sep 5 2005;24(39):6058-68. [Medline].
Manel N, Kim FJ, Kinet S, Taylor N, Sitbon M, Battini JL. The ubiquitous glucose transporter GLUT-1 is a receptor for HTLV. Cell. Nov 14 2003;115(4):449-59. [Medline].
Wolfe ND, Heneine W, Carr JK, Garcia AD, Shanmugam V, Tamoufe U. Emergence of unique primate T-lymphotropic viruses among central African bushmeat hunters. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. May 31 2005;102(22):7994-9. [Medline].
Boxus M, Twizere JC, Legros S, Dewulf JF, Kettmann R, Willems L. The HTLV-1 Tax interactome. Retrovirology. Aug 14 2008;5:76. [Medline].
Takeda S, Maeda M, Morikawa S, et al. Genetic and epigenetic inactivation of tax gene in adult T-cell leukemia cells. Int J Cancer. Apr 20 2004;109(4):559-67. [Medline].
Feuer G, Green PL. Comparative biology of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2. Oncogene. Sep 5 2005;24(39):5996-6004. [Medline].
Lairmore MD, Anupam R, Bowden N, Haines R, Haynes RA 2nd, Ratner L, et al. Molecular determinants of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 transmission and spread. Viruses. Jul 2011;3(7):1131-65. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Matsuoka M, Jeang KT. Human T-cell leukaemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infectivity and cellular transformation. Nat Rev Cancer. Apr 2007;7(4):270-80. [Medline].
Li HC, Biggar RJ, Miley WJ, Maloney EM, Cranston B, Hanchard B. Provirus load in breast milk and risk of mother-to-child transmission of human T lymphotropic virus type I. J Infect Dis. Oct 1 2004;190(7):1275-8. [Medline].
Wiktor SZ, Pate EJ, Rosenberg PS, Barnett M, Palmer P, Medeiros D. Mother-to-child transmission of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I associated with prolonged breast-feeding. J Hum Virol. Nov-Dec 1997;1(1):37-44. [Medline].
Kinoshita K, Amagasaki T, Hino S, et al. Milk-borne transmission of HTLV-I from carrier mothers to their children. Jpn J Cancer Res. Jul 1987;78(7):674-80. [Medline].
Roucoux DF, Murphy EL. The epidemiology and disease outcomes of human T-lymphotropic virus type II. AIDS Rev. Jul-Sep 2004;6(3):144-54. [Medline].
Manns A, Wilks RJ, Murphy EL, et al. A prospective study of transmission by transfusion of HTLV-I and risk factors associated with seroconversion. Int J Cancer. Jul 30 1992;51(6):886-91. [Medline].
Yara S, Fujita J, Date H. Transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus type I by bilateral living-donor lobar lung transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. Jul 2009;138(1):255-6. [Medline].
Zunt JR, Tapia K, Thiede H, Lee R, Hagan H. HTLV-2 infection in injection drug users in King County, Washington. Scand J Infect Dis. 2006;38(8):654-63. [Medline].
Murata M, Mizusawa H, Kanazawa I, Yazawa T, Uchida Y. [An autopsy case of HTLV-I associated myelopathy (HAM) with adult T-cell leukemia (ATL)]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku. Jul 1990;30(7):754-9. [Medline].
Furukawa Y, Okadome T, Tara M, Niina K, Izumo S, Osame M. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-I (HTLV-I)-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis with acute type of adult T-cell leukemia. Intern Med. Nov 1995;34(11):1130-3. [Medline].
Murphy EL, Biswas HH. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus types I and II. In: Mandell G, Bennett J, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingston / Elsevier; 2010:Ch 168.
Shimoyama M. Diagnostic criteria and classification of clinical subtypes of adult T-cell leukaemia-lymphoma. A report from the Lymphoma Study Group (1984-87). Br J Haematol. Nov 1991;79(3):428-37. [Medline].
Alberti C, Gonzalez J, Maldonado H, et al. Comparative study of CSF neurofilaments in HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis and other neurological disorders. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. Aug 2009;25(8):803-9. [Medline].
Primo J, Siqueira I, Nascimento MC, et al. High HTLV-1 proviral load, a marker for HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis, is also detected in patients with infective dermatitis associated with HTLV-1. Braz J Med Biol Res. Aug 2009;42(8):761-4. [Medline].
Biswas HH, Engstrom JW, Kaidarova Z, et al. Neurologic abnormalities in HTLV-I- and HTLV-II-infected individuals without overt myelopathy. Neurology. Sep 8 2009;73(10):781-9. [Medline].
Buggage RR. Ocular manifestations of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 infection. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. Dec 2003;14(6):420-5. [Medline].
Nishioka K, Maruyama I, Sato K, Kitajima I, Nakajima Y, Osame M. Chronic inflammatory arthropathy associated with HTLV-I. Lancet. Feb 25 1989;1(8635):441. [Medline].
Dooneief G, Marlink R, Bell K, et al. Neurologic consequences of HTLV-II infection in injection-drug users. Neurology. Jun 1996;46(6):1556-60. [Medline].
Calattini S, Chevalier SA, Duprez R, Bassot S, Froment A, Mahieux R. Discovery of a new human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-3) in Central Africa. Retrovirology. 2005;2:30. [Medline].
Yasunaga J, Matsuoka M. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I induces adult T-cell leukemia: from clinical aspects to molecular mechanisms. Cancer Control. Apr 2007;14(2):133-40. [Medline].
Eshima N, Iwata O, Iwata S, et al. Age and gender specific prevalence of HTLV-1. J Clin Virol. Jun 2009;45(2):135-8. [Medline].
Gout O, Baulac M, Gessain A, et al. Rapid development of myelopathy after HTLV-I infection acquired by transfusion during cardiac transplantation. N Engl J Med. Feb 8 1990;322(6):383-8. [Medline].
Cooper SA, van der Loeff MS, Taylor GP. The neurology of HTLV-1 infection. Pract Neurol. Feb 2009;9(1):16-26. [Medline].
Tsukasaki K, Hermine O, Bazarbachi A, et al. Definition, prognostic factors, treatment, and response criteria of adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma: a proposal from an international consensus meeting. J Clin Oncol. Jan 20 2009;27(3):453-9. [Medline].
[Guideline] Khabbaz RF, Fukuda K, Kaplan JE. Guidelines for counseling human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I)- and HTLV type II-infected persons. Transfusion. Aug 1993;33(8):694. [Medline].
Ramos JC, Lossos IS. Newly emerging therapies targeting viral-related lymphomas. Curr Oncol Rep. Oct 2011;13(5):416-26. [Medline].
Miyamura F, Kako S, Yamagami H, et al. Successful treatment of young-onset adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma and preceding chronic refractory eczema and corneal injury by allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Int J Hematol. Aug 25 2009;[Medline].
Willems L. The 14th International Conference on Human Retrovirology: HTLV and related retroviruses (July 1-4, 2009; Salvador, Brazil). Retrovirology. Aug 17 2009;6:77. [Medline].
Macchi B, Balestrieri E, Mastino A. Effects of nucleoside-based antiretroviral chemotherapy on human T cell leukaemia/lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection in vitro. J Antimicrob Chemother. Jun 2003;51(6):1327-30. [Medline].
Carvalho EM, Da Fonseca Porto A. Epidemiological and clinical interaction between HTLV-1 and Strongyloides stercoralis. Parasite Immunol. Nov-Dec 2004;26(11-12):487-97. [Medline].
Collins JA, Hernandez AV, Hidalgo JA, Salazar R. HTLV-I infection is not associated with a higher risk of death in Peruvian HIV-infected patients. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. Jul-Aug 2009;51(4):197-201. [Medline].
Brites C, Sampalo J, Oliveira A. HIV/human T-cell lymphotropic virus coinfection revisited: impact on AIDS progression. AIDS Rev. Jan-Mar 2009;11(1):8-16. [Medline].
Andrade TM, Dourado I, Galvao-Castro B. Associations among HTLV-I, HTLV-II, and HIV in injecting drug users in Salvador, Brazil. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. Jun 1 1998;18(2):186-7. [Medline].
Aye MM, Matsuoka E, Moritoyo T, et al. Histopathological analysis of four autopsy cases of HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis: inflammatory changes occur simultaneously in the entire central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol. Sep 2000;100(3):245-52. [Medline].
Beilke MA, Japa S, Moeller-Hadi C, Martin-Schild S. Tropical spastic paraparesis/human T leukemia virus type 1-associated myelopathy in HIV type 1-coinfected patients. Clin Infect Dis. Sep 15 2005;41(6):e57-63. [Medline].
Berger JR, Svenningsson A, Raffanti S, Resnick L. Tropical spastic paraparesis-like illness occurring in a patient dually infected with HIV-1 and HTLV-II. Neurology. Jan 1991;41(1):85-7. [Medline].
Borg A, Yin JA, Johnson PR, Tosswill J, Saunders M, Morris D. Successful treatment of HTLV-1-associated acute adult T-cell leukaemia lymphoma by allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Br J Haematol. Sep 1996;94(4):713-5. [Medline].
Castilla J, Pachon I, Gonzalez MP, et al. Seroprevalence of HIV and HTLV in a representative sample of the Spanish population. Epidemiol Infect. Aug 2000;125(1):159-62. [Medline].
Cavrois M, Gessain A, Gout O, Wain-Hobson S, Wattel E. Common human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) integration sites in cerebrospinal fluid and blood lymphocytes of patients with HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis indicate that HTLV-1 crosses the blood-brain barrier via clonal HTLV-1-infected cells. J Infect Dis. Oct 2000;182(4):1044-50. [Medline].
Edlich RF, Arnette JA, Williams FM. Global epidemic of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-I (HTLV-I). J Emerg Med. Jan 2000;18(1):109-19. [Medline].
Gessain A, Barin F, Vernant JC, et al. Antibodies to human T-lymphotropic virus type-I in patients with tropical spastic paraparesis. Lancet. Aug 24 1985;2(8452):407-10. [Medline].
Grassmann R, Berchtold S, Radant I, Alt M, Fleckenstein B, Sodroski JG. Role of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 X region proteins in immortalization of primary human lymphocytes in culture. J Virol. Jul 1992;66(7):4570-5. [Medline].
Hall WW, Takahashi H, Liu C, Kaplan MH, Scheewind O, Ijichi S. Multiple isolates and characteristics of human T-cell leukemia virus type II. J Virol. Apr 1992;66(4):2456-63. [Medline].
Haoudi A, Daniels RC, Wong E, Kupfer G, Semmes OJ. Human T-cell leukemia virus-I tax oncoprotein functionally targets a subnuclear complex involved in cellular DNA damage-response. J Biol Chem. Sep 26 2003;278(39):37736-44. [Medline].
Hershow RC, Galai N, Fukuda K, Graber J, Vlahov D, Rezza G. An international collaborative study of the effects of coinfection with human T-lymphotropic virus type II on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease progression in injection drug users. J Infect Dis. Aug 1996;174(2):309-17. [Medline].
Hinuma Y, Nagata K, Hanaoka M, Nakai M, Matsumoto T, Kinoshita KI. Adult T-cell leukemia: antigen in an ATL cell line and detection of antibodies to the antigen in human sera. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Oct 1981;78(10):6476-80. [Medline].
Hisada M, Maloney EM, Sawada T, Miley WJ, Palmer P, Hanchard B. Virus markers associated with vertical transmission of human T lymphotropic virus type 1 in Jamaica. Clin Infect Dis. Jun 15 2002;34(12):1551-7. [Medline].
Hjelle B, Zhu SW, Takahashi H, Ijichi S, Hall WW. Endemic human T cell leukemia virus type II infection in southwestern US Indians involves two prototype variants of virus. J Infect Dis. Sep 1993;168(3):737-40. [Medline].
Iga M, Okayama A, Stuver S, Matsuoka M, Mueller N, Aoki M. Genetic evidence of transmission of human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 between spouses. J Infect Dis. Mar 1 2002;185(5):691-5. [Medline].
Igakura T, Stinchcombe JC, Goon PK, Taylor GP, Weber JN, Griffiths GM. Spread of HTLV-I between lymphocytes by virus-induced polarization of the cytoskeleton. Science. Mar 14 2003;299(5613):1713-6. [Medline].
Jeang KT. Functional activities of the human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax oncoprotein: cellular signaling through NF-kappa B. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. Jun-Sep 2001;12(2-3):207-17. [Medline].
Jeffery KJ, Usuku K, Hall SE, Matsumoto W, Taylor GP, Procter J. HLA alleles determine human T-lymphotropic virus-I (HTLV-I) proviral load and the risk of HTLV-I-associated myelopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Mar 30 1999;96(7):3848-53. [Medline].
Kannagi M, Ohashi T, Harashima N, Hanabuchi S, Hasegawa A. Immunological risks of adult T-cell leukemia at primary HTLV-I infection. Trends Microbiol. Jul 2004;12(7):346-52. [Medline].
LaGrenade L, Hanchard B, Fletcher V, Cranston B, Blattner W. Infective dermatitis of Jamaican children: a marker for HTLV-I infection. Lancet. Dec 1 1990;336(8727):1345-7. [Medline].
Lee HH, Weiss SH, Brown LS, Mildvan D, Shorty V, Saravolatz L. Patterns of HIV-1 and HTLV-I/II in intravenous drug abusers from the middle atlantic and central regions of the USA. J Infect Dis. Aug 1990;162(2):347-52. [Medline].
Lezin A, Olindo S, Oliere S, et al. Human T lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) proviral load in cerebrospinal fluid: a new criterion for the diagnosis of HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis?. J Infect Dis. Jun 1 2005;191(11):1830-4. [Medline].
Loughran TP Jr, Coyle T, Sherman MP, et al. Detection of human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus, type II, in a patient with large granular lymphocyte leukemia. Blood. Sep 1 1992;80(5):1116-9. [Medline].
Marcos LA, Terashima A, Dupont HL, Gotuzzo E. Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome: an emerging global infectious disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. Apr 2008;102(4):314-8. [Medline].
Martin MP, Biggar RJ, Hamlin-Green G, Staal S, Mann D. Large granular lymphocytosis in a patient infected with HTLV-II. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. Aug 1993;9(8):715-9. [Medline].
Matsuoka M. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) infection and the onset of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL). Retrovirology. 2005;2:27. [Medline].
Melo J, Beby-Defaux A, Faria C, et al. HIV and HTLV prevalences among women seen for sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy follow-up in Maputo, Mozambique. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. Feb 1 2000;23(2):203-4. [Medline].
Mori N, Yamada Y, Ikeda S, Yamasaki Y, Tsukasaki K, Tanaka Y. Bay 11-7082 inhibits transcription factor NF-kappaB and induces apoptosis of HTLV-I-infected T-cell lines and primary adult T-cell leukemia cells. Blood. Sep 1 2002;100(5):1828-34. [Medline].
Murphy EL, Mahieux R, de The G, et al. Molecular epidemiology of HTLV-II among United States blood donors and intravenous drug users: an age-cohort effect for HTLV-II RFLP type aO. Virology. Mar 15 1998;242(2):425-34. [Medline].
Murphy EL, Wang B, Sacher RA, Fridey J, Smith JW, Nass CC. Respiratory and urinary tract infections, arthritis, and asthma associated with HTLV-I and HTLV-II infection. Emerg Infect Dis. Jan 2004;10(1):109-16. [Medline].
Murphy EL, Watanabe K, Nass CC, Ownby H, Williams A, Nemo G. Evidence among blood donors for a 30-year-old epidemic of human T lymphotropic virus type II infection in the United States. J Infect Dis. Dec 1999;180(6):1777-83. [Medline].
Nasr R, El-Sabban ME, Karam JA, et al. Efficacy and mechanism of action of the proteasome inhibitor PS-341 in T-cell lymphomas and HTLV-I associated adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Oncogene. Jan 13 2005;24(3):419-30. [Medline].
Ohashi T, Hanabuchi S, Kato H, Tateno H, Takemura F, Tsukahara T. Prevention of adult T-cell leukemia-like lymphoproliferative disease in rats by adoptively transferred T cells from a donor immunized with human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax-coding DNA vaccine. J Virol. Oct 2000;74(20):9610-6. [Medline].
Orland JR, Wang B, Wright DJ, Nass CC, Garratty G, Smith JW. Increased mortality associated with HTLV-II infection in blood donors: a prospective cohort study. Retrovirology. 2004;1:4. [Medline].
Osame M, Usuku K, Izumo S, Ijichi N, Amitani H, Igata A. HTLV-I associated myelopathy, a new clinical entity. Lancet. May 3 1986;1(8488):1031-2. [Medline].
Pawson R, Schulz TF, Matutes E, Catovsky D. The human T-cell lymphotropic viruses types I/II are not involved in T prolymphocytic leukemia and large granular lymphocytic leukemia. Leukemia. Aug 1997;11(8):1305-11. [Medline].
Poiesz B, Dube D, Dube S, et al. HTLV-II-associated cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in a patient with HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. Mar 30 2000;342(13):930-6. [Medline].
Portis T, Harding JC, Ratner L. The contribution of NF-kappa B activity to spontaneous proliferation and resistance to apoptosis in human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax-induced tumors. Blood. Aug 15 2001;98(4):1200-8. [Medline].
Porto AF, Santos SB, Muniz AL, Basilio V, Rodrigues W Jr, Neva FA. Helminthic infection down-regulates type 1 immune responses in human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) carriers and is more prevalent in HTLV-1 carriers than in patients with HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. J Infect Dis. Feb 15 2005;191(4):612-8. [Medline].
Primo JR, Brites C, Oliveira Mde F, Moreno-Carvalho O, Machado M, Bittencourt AL. Infective dermatitis and human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis in childhood and adolescence. Clin Infect Dis. Aug 15 2005;41(4):535-41. [Medline].
Rosenblatt JD, Giorgi JV, Golde DW, et al. Integrated human T-cell leukemia virus II genome in CD8 + T cells from a patient with "atypical" hairy cell leukemia: evidence for distinct T and B cell lymphoproliferative disorders. Blood. Feb 1988;71(2):363-9. [Medline].
Roucoux DF, Wang B, Smith D, et al. A prospective study of sexual transmission of human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-I and HTLV-II. J Infect Dis. May 1 2005;191(9):1490-7. [Medline].
Rous P. Landmark article (JAMA 1911;56:198). Transmission of a malignant new growth by means of a cell-free filtrate. By Peyton Rous. JAMA. Sep 16 1983;250(11):1445-9. [Medline].
Safaeian M, Wilson LE, Taylor E, Thomas DL, Vlahov D. HTLV-II and bacterial infections among injection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. Aug 15 2000;24(5):483-7. [Medline].
Salemi M, Lewis M, Egan JF, Hall WW, Desmyter J, Vandamme AM. Different population dynamics of human T cell lymphotropic virus type II in intravenous drug users compared with endemically infected tribes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Nov 9 1999;96(23):13253-8. [Medline].
Seiki M, Hattori S, Yoshida M. Human adult T-cell leukemia virus: molecular cloning of the provirus DNA and the unique terminal structure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Nov 1982;79(22):6899-902. [Medline].
Shuh M, Beilke M. The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1): new insights into the clinical aspects and molecular pathogenesis of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) and tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM). Microsc Res Tech. Nov 2005;68(3-4):176-96. [Medline].
Tajima K. Worldwide distribution of HTLV. Jpn J Cancer Res. Jan 1998;89(1):inside front cover. [Medline].
Taylor GP, Matsuoka M. Natural history of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and approaches to therapy. Oncogene. Sep 5 2005;24(39):6047-57. [Medline].
Telzak EE, Hershow R, Kalish LA, et al. Seroprevalence of HTLV-I and HTLV-II among a cohort of HIV-infected women and women at risk for HIV infection. Women's Interagency HIV Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. Dec 15 1998;19(5):513-8. [Medline].
Temin HM, Mizutani S. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of Rous sarcoma virus. Nature. Jun 27 1970;226(5252):1211-3. [Medline].
Tsukasaki K, Maeda T, Arimura K, Taguchi J, Fukushima T, Miyazaki Y. Poor outcome of autologous stem cell transplantation for adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma: a case report and review of the literature. Bone Marrow Transplant. Jan 1999;23(1):87-9. [Medline].
Uchiyama T, Yodoi J, Sagawa K, Takatsuki K, Uchino H. Adult T-cell leukemia: clinical and hematologic features of 16 cases. Blood. Sep 1977;50(3):481-92. [Medline].
Utsunomiya A, Miyazaki Y, Takatsuka Y, Hanada S, Uozumi K, Yashiki S. Improved outcome of adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma with allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. Jan 2001;27(1):15-20. [Medline].
Vine AM, Witkover AD, Lloyd AL, Jeffery KJ, Siddiqui A, Marshall SE. Polygenic control of human T lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) provirus load and the risk of HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. J Infect Dis. Oct 1 2002;186(7):932-9. [Medline].
Waldmann TA, White JD, Goldman CK, Top L, Grant A, Bamford R. The interleukin-2 receptor: a target for monoclonal antibody treatment of human T-cell lymphotrophic virus I-induced adult T-cell leukemia. Blood. Sep 15 1993;82(6):1701-12. [Medline].
Yoshida M. Multiple viral strategies of HTLV-1 for dysregulation of cell growth control. Annu Rev Immunol. 2001;19:475-96. [Medline].
Zhang Z, Zhang M, Ravetch JV, Goldman C, Waldmann TA. Effective therapy for a murine model of adult T-cell leukemia with the humanized anti-CD2 monoclonal antibody, MEDI-507. Blood. Jul 1 2003;102(1):284-8. [Medline].

