eMedicine Specialties > Infectious Diseases > Bacterial Infections
Typhoid Fever: Treatment & Medication
Updated: Sep 2, 2009
- Overview
- Differential Diagnoses & Workup
- Treatment & Medication
- Follow-up
- Multimedia
Treatment
Medical Care
If a patient presents with unexplained symptoms described in Table 1 within 60 days of returning from an typhoid fever (enteric fever) endemic area or following consumption of food prepared by an individual who is known to carry typhoid, broad-spectrum empiric antibiotics should be started immediately. Treatment should not be delayed for confirmatory tests since prompt treatment drastically reduces the risk of complications and fatalities. Antibiotic therapy should be narrowed once more information is available.
Compliant patients with uncomplicated disease may be treated on an outpatient basis. They must be advised to use strict handwashing techniques and to avoid preparing food for others during the illness course. Hospitalized patients should be placed in contact isolation during the acute phase of the infection. Feces and urine must be disposed of safely.
Surgical Care
Surgery is usually indicated in cases of intestinal perforation. Most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum. Small-bowel resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations.
If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection.
Consultations
An infectious disease specialist should be consulted. Consultation with a surgeon is indicated upon suspected gastrointestinal perforation, serious gastrointestinal hemorrhage, cholecystitis, or extraintestinal complications (arteritis, endocarditis, organ abscesses).
Diet
Fluids and electrolytes should be monitored and replaced diligently. Oral nutrition with a soft digestible diet is preferable in the absence of abdominal distension or ileus.
Activity
No specific limitations on activity are indicated for patients with typhoid fever. As with most systemic diseases, rest is helpful, but mobility should be maintained if tolerable. The patient should be encouraged to stay home from work until recovery.
Medication
Antibiotics
Definitive treatment of typhoid fever (enteric fever) is based on susceptibility. As a general principle of antimicrobial treatment, intermediate susceptibility should be regarded as equivalent to resistance. Until susceptibilities are determined, antibiotics should be empiric, of which there are various recommendations. The 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines recommend treatment with fluoroquinolones for both complicated and uncomplicated cases of typhoid fever. However, as outlined below, sensitivity profiles of S typhi vary geographically.36 In the authors’ opinion, the initial antibiotic choice should be based on the sensitivity data of the area in which the infection was acquired.
Antibiotic susceptibility varies widely among S typhi and S paratyphi strains, depending chiefly on geography. Nalidixic acid is a nontherapeutic drug that is used outside of the United States as a stand-in for fluoroquinolones in sensitivity assays. It is no longer useful clinically.37
History of antibiotic resistance
Chloramphenicol was used universally to treat typhoid fever from 1948 until the 1970s, when widespread resistance occurred. Ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ) then became treatments of choice. However, in the late 1980s, some S typhi and S paratyphi strains (multidrug resistant [MDR] S typhi or S paratyphi) developed simultaneous plasmid-mediated resistance to all three of these agents.
Fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins are currently the first-line treatments. Currently, fluoroquinolones appear to yield a better cure rate than cephalosporins. However, resistance to fluoroquinolones is widespread in some areas, and sporadic resistance to cephalosporins has been reported.37
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance
The genes for antibiotic resistance in S typhi and S paratyphi are acquired from Escherichia coli and other gram-negative bacteria via plasmids. The plasmids contain cassettes of resistance genes that are incorporated into a region of the Salmonella genome called an integron. Some plasmids carry multiple cassettes and immediately confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics. This explains the sudden appearance of MDR strains of S typhi and S paratyphi, often without intermediate strains that have less-extensive resistance.38,39,40
The initial strains of antibiotic-resistant S typhi and S paratyphi carried chloramphenicol acetyltransferase type I, which encodes an enzyme that inactivates chloramphenicol via acetylation. MDR strains may carry dihydrofolate reductase type VII, which confers resistance to trimethoprim.
Geography of resistance
Most typhoid fever cases diagnosed in the United States originate in Latin America, where the incidence of fluoroquinolone resistance is low (see Table 3). The rate of fluoroquinolone resistance in south and Southeast Asia and, to some extent, in East Asia is generally high and rising (see Table 3). Susceptibility to chloramphenicol, TMP-SMZ, and ampicillin in these areas is rebounding. In Southeast Asia, MDR strains remain predominant, and some acquired resistance to fluoroquinolones by the early 2000s.
The most recent professional guideline for the treatment of typhoid fever in south Asia was issued by the Indian Association of Pediatrics (IAP) in October 2006. Although these guidelines were published for pediatric typhoid fever, the authors feel that they are also applicable to adult cases. For empiric treatment of uncomplicated typhoid fever, the IAP recommends cefixime and, as a second-line agent, azithromycin. For complicated typhoid fever, they recommend ceftriaxone. Aztreonam and imipenem are second-line agents for complicated cases.41 The authors believe that the IAP recommendations have more validity than the WHO recommendations for empiric treatments of typhoid fever in both adults and children.
In high-prevalence areas outside the areas discussed above, the rate of intermediate sensitivity or resistance to fluoroquinolones is 3.7% in the Americas (P =.132), 4.7% (P =.144) in sub-Saharan Africa, and 10.8% (P =.706) in the Middle East. Therefore, for strains that originate outside of south or Southeast Asia, the authors agree with WHO recommendations that uncomplicated disease should be treated empirically with oral ciprofloxacin. Complicated typhoid fever from these regions should be treated with intravenous ciprofloxacin. Note, however, that resistance to fluoroquinolones will probably increase in these areas in the future.37,40,42 18,43
In the authors' opinion, if the origin of the infection is unknown, the combination of a fluoroquinolone and a third-generation cephalosporin should be used.
Table 3. Antibiotic Recommendations by Origin and Severity
Open table in new window
Table
| Location | Severity | First-Line Antibiotics | Second-Line Antibiotics |
| South Asia, East Asia 41 44, 38 | Uncomplicated | Cefixime PO | Azithromycin PO |
| Complicated | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV | Aztreonam IV or Imipenem IV | |
| Eastern Europe, Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, South America 42, 36 | Uncomplicated | Ciprofloxacin PO or Ofloxacin PO | Cefixime PO or Amoxicillin PO or TMP-SMZ PO or Azithromycin PO |
| Complicated | Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV or Ampicillin IV or TMP-SMZ IV | |
| Unknown geographic origin or Southeast Asia 45, 41 44, 38, 42, 36 | Uncomplicated | Cefixime PO plus Ciprofloxacin PO or Ofloxacin PO | Azithromycin PO* |
| Complicated | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV, plus Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV | Aztreonam IV or Imipenem IV, plus Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV |
| Location | Severity | First-Line Antibiotics | Second-Line Antibiotics |
| South Asia, East Asia 41 44, 38 | Uncomplicated | Cefixime PO | Azithromycin PO |
| Complicated | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV | Aztreonam IV or Imipenem IV | |
| Eastern Europe, Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, South America 42, 36 | Uncomplicated | Ciprofloxacin PO or Ofloxacin PO | Cefixime PO or Amoxicillin PO or TMP-SMZ PO or Azithromycin PO |
| Complicated | Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV or Ampicillin IV or TMP-SMZ IV | |
| Unknown geographic origin or Southeast Asia 45, 41 44, 38, 42, 36 | Uncomplicated | Cefixime PO plus Ciprofloxacin PO or Ofloxacin PO | Azithromycin PO* |
| Complicated | Ceftriaxone IV or Cefotaxime IV, plus Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV | Aztreonam IV or Imipenem IV, plus Ciprofloxacin IV or Ofloxacin IV |
*Note that the combination of azithromycin and fluoroquinolones is not recommended because it may cause QT prolongation and is relatively contraindicated.
Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin)
Binds to 50S bacterial-ribosomal subunits and inhibits bacterial growth by inhibiting protein synthesis. Effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Since its introduction in 1948, has proven to be remarkably effective for enteric fever worldwide. For sensitive strains, still most widely used antibiotic to treat typhoid fever. In the 1960s, S typhi strains with plasmid-mediated resistance to chloramphenicol began to appear and later became widespread in many endemic countries of the Americas and Southeast Asia, highlighting need for alternative agents.
Produces rapid improvement in patient's general condition, followed by defervescence in 3-5 d. Reduced preantibiotic-era case-fatality rates from 10-15% to 1-4%. Cures approximately 90% of patients. Administered PO unless patient is nauseous or experiencing diarrhea; in such cases, IV route should be used initially. IM route should be avoided because it may result in unsatisfactory blood levels, delaying defervescence.
Adult
500 mg PO/IV q4h until defervescence, then q6h for a total course of 14 d
Pediatric
50-75 mg/kg/d PO/IV divided q6h
Concurrently with barbiturates, chloramphenicol serum levels may decrease while barbiturate levels may increase, causing toxicity; manifestations of hypoglycemia may occur with sulfonylureas; rifampin may reduce serum levels, presumably through hepatic enzyme induction; may increase effects of anticoagulants; may increase serum hydantoin levels, possibly resulting in toxicity (chloramphenicol levels may be increased or decreased)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Use only for indicated infections or as prophylaxis for bacterial infections; serious and fatal blood dyscrasias (eg, aplastic anemia, hypoplastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, granulocytopenia) can occur; evaluate baseline and perform periodic blood studies approximately every 2 d during therapy; discontinue upon appearance of reticulocytopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia, or findings attributable to chloramphenicol; adjust dose in liver or kidney dysfunction; caution in pregnancy at term or during labor because of potential toxic effects on fetus (gray syndrome); higher relapse rate following use because of the emergence of resistant strains
Amoxicillin (Trimox, Amoxil, Biomox)
Interferes with synthesis of cell wall mucopeptides during active multiplication, resulting in bactericidal activity against susceptible bacteria. At least as effective as chloramphenicol in rapidity of defervescence and relapse rate. Convalescence carriage occurs less commonly than with other agents when organisms are fully susceptible. Usually given PO with a daily dose of 75-100 mg/kg tid for 14 d.
Adult
1 g PO q8h
Pediatric
20-50 mg/kg/d PO divided q8h for 14 d
Reduces the efficacy of oral contraceptives
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Adjust dose in renal impairment; may enhance chance of candidiasis
Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim DS, Septra)
Inhibits bacterial growth by inhibiting synthesis of dihydrofolic acid. Antibacterial activity of TMP-SMZ includes common urinary tract pathogens, except Pseudomonas aeruginosa. As effective as chloramphenicol in defervescence and relapse rate. Trimethoprim alone has been effective in small groups of patients.
Adult
6.5-10 mg/kg/d PO bid/tid; can be given IV if necessary; 160 mg TMP/800 mg SMZ PO q12h for 10-14 d
Pediatric
<2 months: Do not administer
>2 months: 15-20 mg/kg/d PO, based on TMP, tid/qid for 14 d
May increase PT when used with warfarin (perform coagulation tests and adjust dose accordingly); coadministration with dapsone may increase blood levels of both drugs; coadministration of diuretics increases incidence of thrombocytopenia purpura in elderly persons; phenytoin levels may increase with coadministration; may potentiate effects of methotrexate in bone marrow depression; hypoglycemic response to sulfonylureas may increase with coadministration; may increase levels of zidovudine
Documented hypersensitivity; megaloblastic anemia due to folate deficiency
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Discontinue at first appearance of skin rash or sign of adverse reaction; obtain CBC counts frequently; discontinue therapy if significant hematologic changes occur; goiter, diuresis, and hypoglycemia may occur with sulfonamides; prolonged IV infusions or high doses may cause bone marrow depression (if signs occur, give 5-15 mg/d leucovorin); caution in folate deficiency (eg, patients with long-term alcoholism, elderly persons, those receiving anticonvulsant therapy, or those with malabsorption syndrome); hemolysis may occur in patients with G-6-PD deficiency; patients with AIDS may not tolerate or respond to TMP-SMZ; caution in renal or hepatic impairment (perform urinalyses and renal function tests during therapy); administer fluids to prevent crystalluria and stone formation
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Fluoroquinolone with activity against pseudomonads, streptococci, MRSA, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and most gram-negative organisms but no activity against anaerobes. Inhibits bacterial DNA synthesis and, consequently, growth. Continue treatment for at least 2 d (7-14 d typical) after signs and symptoms have disappeared. Proven to be highly effective for typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. Defervescence occurs in 3-5 d, and convalescent carriage and relapses are rare. Other quinolones (eg, ofloxacin, norfloxacin, pefloxacin) usually are effective. If vomiting or diarrhea is present, should be given IV. Fluoroquinolones are highly effective against multiresistant strains and have intracellular antibacterial activity.
Not currently recommended for use in children and pregnant women because of observed potential for causing cartilage damage in growing animals. However, arthropathy has not been reported in children following use of nalidixic acid (an earlier quinolone known to produce similar joint damage in young animals) or in children with cystic fibrosis, despite high-dose treatment.
Adult
20-30 mg/kg/d PO bid for 14 d, but shorter courses may be adequate; 250-500 mg PO bid for 7-14 d
Pediatric
<18 years: Not recommended
>18 years: Administer as in adults
Antacids, iron salts, and zinc salts may reduce serum levels; administer antacids 2-4 h before or after taking fluoroquinolones; cimetidine may interfere with metabolism of fluoroquinolones; reduces therapeutic effects of phenytoin; probenecid may increase serum concentrations; may increase toxicity of theophylline, caffeine, cyclosporine, and digoxin (monitor digoxin levels); may increase effects of anticoagulants (monitor PT)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
In prolonged therapy, perform periodic evaluations of organ system functions (eg, renal, hepatic, hematopoietic); adjust dose in renal function impairment; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapy
Cefotaxime (Claforan)
Arrests bacterial cell wall synthesis, which inhibits bacterial growth. Third-generation cephalosporin with gram-negative spectrum. Lower efficacy against gram-positive organisms. Excellent in vitro activity against S typhi and other salmonellae and has acceptable efficacy in typhoid fever. Only IV formulations are available. Recently, emergence of domestically acquired ceftriaxone-resistant Salmonella infections has been described.
Adult
2 g IV q6h
Pediatric
200 mg/kg/d IV in divided doses for 14 d
Infants and children: 50-180 mg/kg/d IV/IM divided q4-6h
>12 years: Administer as in adults
Probenecid may increase levels; coadministration with furosemide and aminoglycosides may increase nephrotoxicity
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Adjust dose in severe renal impairment; associated with severe colitis
Azithromycin (Zithromax)
Treats mild to moderate microbial infections. Administered PO at 10 mg/kg/d (not exceeding 500 mg), appears to be effective to treat uncomplicated typhoid fever in children 4-17 y. Confirmation of these results could provide an alternative for treatment of typhoid fever in children in developing countries, where medical resources are scarce.
Adult
1 g PO once
Day 1: 500 mg PO
Days 2-5: 250 mg PO qd
Pediatric
<6 months: Not established
>6 months
Day 1: 10 mg/kg PO once; not to exceed 500 mg/d
Days 2-5: 5 mg/kg PO qd; not to exceed 250 mg/d
May increase toxicity of theophylline, warfarin, and digoxin; effects are reduced with coadministration of aluminum and/or magnesium antacids; nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity may occur when coadministered with cyclosporine
Documented hypersensitivity; hepatic impairment; administration with pimozide
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Site reactions can occur with IV route; bacterial or fungal overgrowth may result with prolonged antibiotic use; may increase hepatic enzymes and cholestatic jaundice; caution in patients with impaired hepatic function, prolonged QT intervals, or pneumonia; caution in hospitalized, geriatric, or debilitated patients
Ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
Third-generation cephalosporin with broad-spectrum gram-negative activity against gram-positive organisms; Excellent in vitro activity against S typhi and other salmonellae.
Adult
1-2 g IV q12h
Pediatric
>7 days: 25-50 mg/kg/d IV/IM; not to exceed 125 mg/d
Infants and children: 50-75 mg/kg/d IV/IM divided q12h; not to exceed 2 g/d
Probenecid may increase levels; coadministration with ethacrynic acid, furosemide, and aminoglycosides may increase nephrotoxicity
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Adjust dose in renal impairment; caution predelivery and in breastfeeding; pseudobiliary lithiasis; non– Clostridium difficile diarrhea
Cefoperazone (Cefobid)
Third-generation cephalosporin with gram-negative spectrum. Lower efficacy against gram-positive organisms.
Adult
2-4 g/d IV/IM divided bid; not to exceed 12 g/d
Pediatric
Not established; 100-150 mg/kg/d IV/IM divided q8-12h; not to exceed 12 g/d (suggested)
Probenecid may increase levels; coadministration with furosemide and aminoglycosides may increase nephrotoxicity
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Adjust dose in severe renal impairment; has been associated with severe colitis
Ofloxacin (Floxin)
A pyridine carboxylic acid derivative with broad-spectrum bactericidal effect.
Adult
200-400 mg PO q12h
Pediatric
<18 years: Not recommended
>18 years: Administer as in adults
Antacids, iron salts, and zinc salts may reduce serum levels; administer antacids 2-4 h before or after taking fluoroquinolones; cimetidine may interfere with metabolism of fluoroquinolones; reduces therapeutic effects of phenytoin; probenecid may increase serum concentrations; may increase toxicity of theophylline, caffeine, cyclosporine, and digoxin (monitor digoxin levels); may increase effects of anticoagulants (monitor PT)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
In prolonged therapy, perform periodic evaluations of organ system functions (eg, renal, hepatic, hematopoietic); adjust dose in renal function impairment; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapy
Levofloxacin (Levaquin)
For pseudomonal infections and infections due to multidrug-resistant gram-negative organisms.
Adult
500 mg PO qd for 7-14 d
Pediatric
<18 years: Not recommended
>18 years: Administer as in adults
Antacids, iron salts, and zinc salts may reduce serum levels; administer antacids 2-4 h before or after taking fluoroquinolones; cimetidine may interfere with metabolism of fluoroquinolones; reduces therapeutic effects of phenytoin; probenecid may increase serum concentrations; may increase toxicity of theophylline, caffeine, cyclosporine, and digoxin (monitor digoxin levels); may increase effects of anticoagulants (monitor PT)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
In prolonged therapy, perform periodic evaluations of organ system functions (eg, renal, hepatic, hematopoietic); adjust dose in renal function impairment; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapy
Corticosteroids
Dexamethasone may decrease the likelihood of mortality in severe typhoid fever cases complicated by delirium, obtundation, stupor, coma, or shock if bacterial meningitis has been definitively ruled out by cerebrospinal fluid studies. To date, the most systematic trial of this has been a randomized controlled study in patients aged 3-56 years with severe typhoid fever who were receiving chloramphenicol therapy. This study compared outcomes in 18 patients given placebo with outcomes in 20 patients given dexamethasone 3 mg/kg IV over 30 minutes followed by dexamethasone 1 mg/kg every 6 hours for 8 doses. The fatality rate in the dexamethasone arm was 10% versus 55.6% in the placebo arm (P =.003).46
Nonetheless, this point is still debated. A 2003 WHO statement endorsed the use of steroids as described above, but reviews by eminent authors in the New England Journal of Medicine (2002)6 and the British Medical Journal (2006)47 do not refer to steroids at all. A 1991 trial compared patients treated with 12 doses of dexamethasone 400 mg or 100 mg to a retrospective cohort in whom steroids were not administered. This trial found no difference in outcomes among the groups.48
The data are sparse, but the authors of this article agree with the WHO that dexamethasone should be used in cases of severe typhoid fever.
Dexamethasone (Decadron)
Prompt administration of high-dose dexamethasone reduces mortality in patients with severe typhoid fever without increasing incidence of complications, carrier states, or relapse among survivors.
Adult
3 mg/kg PO/IM/IV initially, followed by 8 doses of 1 mg/kg q6h
Pediatric
Not established
Effects decrease with coadministration of barbiturates, phenytoin, and rifampin; decreases effect of salicylates and vaccines used for immunization
Documented hypersensitivity; active bacterial or fungal infection
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Increases risk of multiple complications, including severe infections; monitor adrenal insufficiency when tapering drug; abrupt discontinuation of glucocorticoids may cause adrenal crisis; hyperglycemia, edema, osteonecrosis, myopathy, peptic ulcer disease, hypokalemia, osteoporosis, euphoria, psychosis, myasthenia gravis, growth suppression, and infections are possible complications of glucocorticoid use
More on Typhoid Fever |
| Overview: Typhoid Fever |
| Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Typhoid Fever |
 Treatment & Medication: Typhoid Fever |
| Follow-up: Typhoid Fever |
| Multimedia: Typhoid Fever |
| References |
| « Previous Page | Next Page » |
References
Papagrigorakis MJ, Synodinos PN, Yapijakis C. Ancient typhoid epidemic reveals possible ancestral strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Infect Genet Evol. Jan 2007;7(1):126-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Christie AB. Infectious Diseases: Epidemiology and Clinical Practice. 4th ed. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone; 1987.
Earampamoorthy S, Koff RS. Health hazards of bivalve-mollusk ingestion. Ann Intern Med. Jul 1975;83(1):107-10. [Medline].
Levine MM, Tacket CO, Sztein MB. Host-Salmonella interaction: human trials. Microbes Infect. Nov-Dec 2001;3(14-15):1271-9. [Medline].
Raffatellu M, Chessa D, Wilson RP, Tükel C, Akçelik M, Bäumler AJ. Capsule-mediated immune evasion: a new hypothesis explaining aspects of typhoid fever pathogenesis. Infect Immun. Jan 2006;74(1):19-27. [Medline].
Parry CM, Hien TT, Dougan G, et al. Typhoid fever. N Engl J Med. Nov 28 2002;347(22):1770-82. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Ramsden AE, Mota LJ, Münter S, Shorte SL, Holden DW. The SPI-2 type III secretion system restricts motility of Salmonella-containing vacuoles. Cell Microbiol. Oct 2007;9(10):2517-29. [Medline].
Gotuzzo E, Frisancho O, Sanchez J, Liendo G, Carrillo C, Black RE, et al. Association between the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and infection with Salmonella typhi or Salmonella paratyphi in an endemic typhoid area. Arch Intern Med. Feb 1991;151(2):381-2. [Medline].
Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Salmonella typhi disease in HIV-infected patients: case reports and literature review. Infez Med. 1999;7(1):49-53. [Medline].
Gordon MA, Graham SM, Walsh AL, Wilson L, Phiri A, Molyneux E, et al. Epidemics of invasive Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis and S. enterica Serovar typhimurium infection associated with multidrug resistance among adults and children in Malawi. Clin Infect Dis. Apr 1 2008;46(7):963-9. [Medline].
Monack DM, Mueller A, Falkow S. Persistent bacterial infections: the interface of the pathogen and the host immune system. Nat Rev Microbiol. Sep 2004;2(9):747-65. [Medline].
Ali S, Vollaard AM, Widjaja S, Surjadi C, van de Vosse E, van Dissel JT. PARK2/PACRG polymorphisms and susceptibility to typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Clin Exp Immunol. Jun 2006;144(3):425-31. [Medline].
van de Vosse E, Ali S, de Visser AW, Surjadi C, Widjaja S, Vollaard AM, et al. Susceptibility to typhoid fever is associated with a polymorphism in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Hum Genet. Oct 2005;118(1):138-40. [Medline].
Poolman EM, Galvani AP. Evaluating candidate agents of selective pressure for cystic fibrosis. J R Soc Interface. Feb 22 2007;4(12):91-8. [Medline].
Ram PK, Naheed A, Brooks WA, Hossain MA, Mintz ED, Breiman RF. Risk factors for typhoid fever in a slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Epidemiol Infect. Apr 2007;135(3):458-65. [Medline].
Dutta TK, Beeresha, Ghotekar LH. Atypical manifestations of typhoid fever. J Postgrad Med. Oct-Dec 2001;47(4):248-51. [Medline].
Steinberg EB, Bishop R, Haber P, Dempsey AF, Hoekstra RM, Nelson JM, et al. Typhoid fever in travelers: who should be targeted for prevention?. Clin Infect Dis. Jul 15 2004;39(2):186-91. [Medline].
Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED. The global burden of typhoid fever. Bull World Health Organ. May 2004;82(5):346-53. [Medline].
Crump JA, Ram PK, Gupta SK, Miller MA, Mintz ED. Part I. Analysis of data gaps pertaining to Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi infections in low and medium human development index countries, 1984-2005. Epidemiol Infect. Apr 2008;136(4):436-48. [Medline].
Mulligan TO. Typhoid fever in young children. Br Med J. Dec 11 1971;4(5788):665-7. [Medline].
Rahaman MM, Jamiul AK. Rose spots in shigellosis caused by Shigella dysenteriae type 1 infection. Br Med J. Oct 29 1977;2(6095):1123-4. [Medline].
Cunha BA. Malaria or typhoid fever: a diagnostic dilemma?. Am J Med. Dec 2005;118(12):1442-3; author reply 1443-4. [Medline].
Woodward TE, Smadel JE. Management of typhoid fever and its complications. Ann Intern Med. Jan 1964;60:144-57. [Medline].
Hermans P, Gerard M, van Laethem Y, et al. Pancreatic disturbances and typhoid fever. Scand J Infect Dis. 1991;23(2):201-5. [Medline].
Butler T, Islam A, Kabir I, et al. Patterns of morbidity and mortality in typhoid fever dependent on age and gender: review of 552 hospitalized patients with diarrhea. Rev Infect Dis. Jan-Feb 1991;13(1):85-90. [Medline].
Butler T, Knight J, Nath SK, et al. Typhoid fever complicated by intestinal perforation: a persisting fatal disease requiring surgical management. Rev Infect Dis. Mar-Apr 1985;7(2):244-56. [Medline].
Crum NF. Current trends in typhoid Fever. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. Aug 2003;5(4):279-86. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Huang DB, DuPont HL. Problem pathogens: extra-intestinal complications of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi infection. Lancet Infect Dis. Jun 2005;5(6):341-8. [Medline].
Wain J, Pham VB, Ha V, Nguyen NM, To SD, Walsh AL, et al. Quantitation of bacteria in bone marrow from patients with typhoid fever: relationship between counts and clinical features. J Clin Microbiol. Apr 2001;39(4):1571-6. [Medline].
Escamilla J, Florez-Ugarte H, Kilpatrick ME. Evaluation of blood clot cultures for isolation of Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi-A, and Brucella melitensis. J Clin Microbiol. Sep 1986;24(3):388-90. [Medline].
Gilman RH, Terminel M, Levine MM, Hernandez-Mendoza P, Hornick RB. Relative efficacy of blood, urine, rectal swab, bone-marrow, and rose-spot cultures for recovery of Salmonella typhi in typhoid fever. Lancet. May 31 1975;1(7918):1211-3. [Medline].
Farooqui BJ, Khurshid M, Ashfaq MK, Khan MA. Comparative yield of Salmonella typhi from blood and bone marrow cultures in patients with fever of unknown origin. J Clin Pathol. Mar 1991;44(3):258-9. [Medline].
Ambati SR, Nath G, Das BK. Diagnosis of typhoid fever by polymerase chain reaction. Indian J Pediatr. Oct 2007;74(10):909-13. [Medline].
Song JH, Cho H, Park MY, et al. Detection of Salmonella typhi in the blood of patients with typhoid fever by polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol. Jun 1993;31(6):1439-43. [Medline].
Sadallah F, Brighouse G, Del Giudice G, et al. Production of specific monoclonal antibodies to Salmonella typhi flagellin and possible application to immunodiagnosis of typhoid fever. J Infect Dis. Jan 1990;161(1):59-64. [Medline].
Vaccines and Biologicals. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; May, 2003.
Capoor MR, Nair D, Deb M, Aggarwal P. Enteric fever perspective in India: emergence of high-level ciprofloxacin resistance and rising MIC to cephalosporins. J Med Microbiol. Aug 2007;56:1131-2. [Medline].
Pai H, Byeon JH, Yu S, Lee BK, Kim S. Salmonella enterica serovar typhi strains isolated in Korea containing a multidrug resistance class 1 integron. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. Jun 2003;47(6):2006-8. [Medline].
Mamun KZ, Tabassum S, Ashna SM, Hart CA. Molecular analysis of multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi from urban paediatric population of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Med Res Counc Bull. Dec 2004;30(3):81-6. [Medline].
Ahmed D, D'Costa LT, Alam K, Nair GB, Hossain MA. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar typhi isolates with high-level resistance to ciprofloxacin in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. Oct 2006;50(10):3516-7. [Medline].
Kundu R, Ganguly N, Ghosh TK, et al. IAP Task Force Report: management of enteric fever in children. Indian Pediatr. Oct 2006;43(10):884-7. [Medline].
Islam MN, Rahman ME, Rouf MA, Islam MN, Khaleque MA, Siddika M, et al. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of childhood typhoid Fever. Mymensingh Med J. Jul 2007;16(2):149-53. [Medline].
Acosta C et al. Background document: The diagnosis, treatment and prevention of typhoid fever. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 07/2003. Vaccines and Biologicals. [Full Text].
Dutta S, Sur D, Manna B, Bhattacharya SK, Deen JL, Clemens JD. Rollback of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi resistance to chloramphenicol and other antimicrobials in Kolkata, India. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. Apr 2005;49(4):1662-3. [Medline].
Cooke FJ, Wain J. The emergence of antibiotic resistance in typhoid fever. Travel Med Infect Dis. May 2004;2(2):67-74. [Medline].
Hoffman SL, Punjabi NH, Kumala S, et al. Reduction of mortality in chloramphenicol-treated severe typhoid fever by high-dose dexamethasone. N Engl J Med. Jan 12 1984;310(2):82-8. [Medline].
Bhutta ZA. Current concepts in the diagnosis and treatment of typhoid fever. BMJ. Jul 8 2006;333(7558):78-82. [Medline].
Rogerson SJ, Spooner VJ, Smith TA, et al. Hydrocortisone in chloramphenicol-treated severe typhoid fever in Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. Jan-Feb 1991;85(1):113-6. [Medline].
Acharya IL, Lowe CU, Thapa R, et al. Prevention of typhoid fever in Nepal with the Vi capsular polysaccharide of Salmonella typhi. A preliminary report. N Engl J Med. Oct 29 1987;317(18):1101-4. [Medline].
[Best Evidence] Sur D, Ochiai RL, Bhattacharya SK, Ganguly NK, Ali M, Manna B, et al. A cluster-randomized effectiveness trial of Vi typhoid vaccine in India. N Engl J Med. Jul 23 2009;361(4):335-44. [Medline].
Hanel RA, Araujo JC, Antoniuk A, et al. Multiple brain abscesses caused by Salmonella typhi: case report. Surg Neurol. Jan 2000;53(1):86-90. [Medline].
Koul PA, Wani JI, Wahid A, et al. Pulmonary manifestations of multidrug-resistant typhoid fever. Chest. Jul 1993;104(1):324-5. [Medline].
Khan M, Coovadia Y, Sturm AW. Typhoid fever complicated by acute renal failure and hepatitis: case reports and review. Am J Gastroenterol. Jun 1998;93(6):1001-3. [Medline].
Sitprija V, Pipantanagul V, Boonpucknavig V, et al. Glomerulitis in typhoid fever. Ann Intern Med. Aug 1974;81(2):210-3. [Medline].
Baker NM, Mills AE, Rachman I, et al. Haemolytic-uraemic syndrome in typhoid fever. Br Med J. Apr 13 1974;2(5910):84-7. [Medline].
Naidoo PM, Yan CC. Typhoid polymyositis. S Afr Med J. Nov 8 1975;49(47):1975-6. [Medline].
Breakey WR, Kala AK. Typhoid catatonia responsive to ECT. Br Med J. Aug 6 1977;2(6083):357-9. [Medline].
Ackers ML, Puhr ND, Tauxe RV, et al. Laboratory-based surveillance of Salmonella serotype Typhi infections in the United States: antimicrobial resistance on the rise. JAMA. May 24-31 2000;283(20):2668-73. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Adam D. Use of quinolones in pediatric patients. Rev Infect Dis. Jul-Aug 1989;11 Suppl 5:S1113-6. [Medline].
Akalin HE. Quinolones in the treatment of typhoid fever. Drugs. 1999;58 Suppl 2:52-4. [Medline].
Ambrosch F, Fritzell B, Gregor J, et al. Combined vaccination against yellow fever and typhoid fever: a comparative trial. Vaccine. May 1994;12(7):625-8. [Medline].
Anand AC, Kataria VK, Singh W, et al. Epidemic multiresistant enteric fever in eastern India. Lancet. Feb 10 1990;335(8685):352. [Medline].
Angorn IB, Pillay SP, Hegarty M, et al. Typhoid perforation of the ileum: A therapeutic dilemma. S Afr Med J. May 3 1975;49(19):781-4. [Medline].
Cunha BA. Antibiotic Essentials. 7th Ed. Royal Oak, MI: Physicians Press; 2008.
Archampong EQ. Operative treatment of typhoid perforation of the bowel. Br Med J. Aug 2 1969;3(5665):273-6. [Medline].
Ashcroft MT, Singh B, Nicholson CC, et al. A seven-year field trial of two typhoid vaccines in Guyana. Lancet. Nov 18 1967;2(7525):1056-9. [Medline].
Bitar R, Tarpley J. Intestinal perforation in typhoid fever: a historical and state-of-the-art review. Rev Infect Dis. Mar-Apr 1985;7(2):257-71. [Medline].
Blaser MJ, Hickman FW, Farmer JJ 3rd, et al. Salmonella typhi: the laboratory as a reservoir of infection. J Infect Dis. Dec 1980;142(6):934-8. [Medline].
Blaser MJ, Newman LS. A review of human salmonellosis: I. Infective dose. Rev Infect Dis. Nov-Dec 1982;4(6):1096-106. [Medline].
Bodhidatta L, Taylor DN, Thisyakorn U, et al. Control of typhoid fever in Bangkok, Thailand, by annual immunization of schoolchildren with parenteral typhoid vaccine. Rev Infect Dis. Jul-Aug 1987;9(4):841-5. [Medline].
Brumell JH, Grinstein S. Salmonella redirects phagosomal maturation. Curr Opin Microbiol. Feb 2004;7(1):78-84. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Butler T, Rumans L, Arnold K. Response of typhoid fever caused by chloramphenicol-susceptible and chloramphenicol-resistant strains of Salmonella typhi to treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Rev Infect Dis. Mar-Apr 1982;4(2):551-61. [Medline].
Calva JJ, Ruiz-Palacios GM. Salmonella hepatitis: detection of salmonella antigens in the liver of patients with typhoid fever. J Infect Dis. Aug 1986;154(2):373-4. [Medline].
Cancellieri V, Fara GM. Demonstration of specific IgA in human feces after immunization with live Ty21a Salmonella typhi vaccine. J Infect Dis. Mar 1985;151(3):482-4. [Medline].
Capoor MR, Rawat D, Nair D, Hasan AS, Deb M, Aggarwal P, et al. In vitro activity of azithromycin, newer quinolones and cephalosporins in ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella causing enteric fever. J Med Microbiol. Nov 2007;56:1490-4. [Medline].
Carcelen A, Chirinos J, Yi A. Furazolidone and chloramphenicol for treatment of typhoid fever. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl. 1989;169:19-23. [Medline].
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Typhoid Immunization Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. 1994;43(RR-14):1-7.
Coovadia YM, Gathiram V, Bhamjee A, et al. An outbreak of multiresistant Salmonella typhi in South Africa. Q J Med. Feb 1992;82(298):91-100. [Medline].
Crosa JH, Brenner DJ, Ewing WH, et al. Molecular relationships among the Salmonelleae. J Bacteriol. Jul 1973;115(1):307-15. [Medline].
Cryz SJ Jr. Post-marketing experience with live oral Ty21a vaccine. Lancet. Jan 2 1993;341(8836):49-50. [Medline].
Cumberland NS, St Clair Roberts J, Arnold WS, et al. Typhoid Vi: a less reactogenic vaccine. J Int Med Res. Jun 1992;20(3):247-53. [Medline].
Cunha BA. Osler on typhoid fever: differentiating typhoid from typhus and malaria. Infect Dis Clin North Am. Mar 2004;18(1):111-25. [Medline].
Cunha BA. Typhoid fever: the temporal relations of key clinical diagnostic points. Lancet Infect Dis. Jun 2006;6(6):318-20; author reply 320-1. [Medline].
Dong B, Galindo CM, Shin E, Acosta CJ, Page AL, Wang M, et al. Optimizing typhoid fever case definitions by combining serological tests in a large population study in Hechi City, China. Epidemiol Infect. Aug 2007;135(6):1014-20. [Medline].
Duggan MB, Beyer L. Enteric fever in young Yoruba children. Arch Dis Child. Jan 1975;50(1):67-71. [Medline].
Dunne EF, Fey PD, Kludt P, et al. Emergence of domestically acquired ceftriaxone-resistant Salmonella infections associated with AmpC beta-lactamase. JAMA. Dec 27 2000;284(24):3151-6. [Medline].
Edelman R, Levine MM. Summary of an international workshop on typhoid fever. Rev Infect Dis. May-Jun 1986;8(3):329-49. [Medline].
Farid Z, Higashi GI, Bassily S, et al. Letter: Immune-complex disease in typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. Ann Intern Med. Sep 1975;83(3):432. [Medline].
Farmer JJ. Enterobacteriaceae: introduction and identification. In: Murray PR, Baron EF, Pfaller MA, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1995:438-49.
Ferreccio C, Levine MM, Manterola A, Rodriguez G, Rivara I, Prenzel I, et al. Benign bacteremia caused by Salmonella typhi and paratyphi in children younger than 2 years. J Pediatr. Jun 1984;104(6):899-901. [Medline].
Ferreccio C, Levine MM, Rodriguez H, et al. Comparative efficacy of two, three, or four doses of TY21a live oral typhoid vaccine in enteric-coated capsules: a field trial in an endemic area. J Infect Dis. Apr 1989;159(4):766-9. [Medline].
Ferreccio C, Morris JG, Valdivieso C, et al. Efficacy of ciprofloxacin in the treatment of chronic typhoid carriers. J Infect Dis. Jun 1988;157(6):1235-9. [Medline].
Frenck RW, Nakhla I, Sultan Y, et al. Azithromycin versus ceftriaxone for the treatment of uncomplicated typhoid fever in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:134-1138. [Medline].
Ghosh SK. Typhoid fever in present-day Britain. Public Health. Jan 1974;88(2):71-8. [Medline].
Gilman RH, Hornick RB, Woodard WE, et al. Evaluation of a UDP-glucose-4-epimeraseless mutant of Salmonella typhi as a liver oral vaccine. J Infect Dis. Dec 1977;136(6):717-23. [Medline].
Gilman RH, Terminel M, Levine MM, et al. Relative efficacy of blood, urine, rectal swab, bone-marrow, and rose- spot cultures for recovery of Salmonella typhi in typhoid fever. Lancet. May 31 1975;1(7918):1211-3. [Medline].
Gorden J, Small PL. Acid resistance in enteric bacteria. Infect Immun. Jan 1993;61(1):364-7. [Medline].
Gordon MA. Salmonella infections in immunocompromised adults. J Infect. Jun 2008;56(6):413-22. [Medline].
Gotuzzo E, Frisancho O, Sanchez J, Liendo G, Carrillo C, Black RE, et al. Association between the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and infection with Salmonella typhi or Salmonella paratyphi in an endemic typhoid area. Arch Intern Med. Feb 1991;151(2):381-2. [Medline].
Gotuzzo E, Guerra JG, Benavente L, et al. Use of norfloxacin to treat chronic typhoid carriers. J Infect Dis. Jun 1988;157(6):1221-5. [Medline].
Gray LD. Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1995:450-6.
Greisman SE, Woodward TE, Hornick RB, Snyder MJ, Carozza FA Jr. Typhoid fever: a study of pathogenesis and physiologic abnormalities. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 1961;73:146-61. [Medline].
Gulati S, Marwaha RK, Prakash D, et al. Multi-drug-resistant Salmonella typhi--a need for therapeutic reappraisal. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1992;12(2):137-41. [Medline].
Gupta A. Multidrug-resistant typhoid fever in children: epidemiology and therapeutic approach. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Feb 1994;13(2):134-40. [Medline].
Gupta SP, Gupta MS, Bhardwaj S, et al. Current clinical patterns of typhoid fever: a prospective study. J Trop Med Hyg. Dec 1985;88(6):377-81. [Medline].
Hensel M. Salmonella pathogenicity island 2. Mol Microbiol. Jun 2000;36(5):1015-23. [Medline].
Herzog C. Chemotherapy of typhoid fever: a review of literature. Infection. 1976;4(3):166-73. [Medline].
Herzog C. New trends in the chemotherapy of typhoid fever. Acta Trop. Sep 1980;37(3):275-80. [Medline].
Hoffman SL, Edman DC, Punjabi NH, et al. Bone marrow aspirate culture superior to streptokinase clot culture and 8 ml 1:10 blood-to-broth ratio blood culture for diagnosis of typhoid fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Jul 1986;35(4):836-9. [Medline].
Hoffman SL, Flanigan TP, Klaucke D, et al. The Widal slide agglutination test, a valuable rapid diagnostic test in typhoid fever patients at the Infectious Diseases Hospital of Jakarta. Am J Epidemiol. May 1986;123(5):869-75. [Medline].
Hoffman SL, Punjabi NH, Rockhill RC, et al. Duodenal string-capsule culture compared with bone-marrow, blood, and rectal-swab cultures for diagnosing typhoid and paratyphoid fever. J Infect Dis. Feb 1984;149(2):157-61. [Medline].
Hornick RB, DuPont HL, Levine MM, et al. Efficacy of a live oral typhoid vaccine in human volunteers. Dev Biol Stand. 1976;33:89-92. [Medline].
Hornick RB, Greisman SE, Woodward TE, et al. Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and immunologic control. N Engl J Med. Sep 24 1970;283(13):686-91. [Medline].
Hornick RB, Greisman SE, Woodward TE, et al. Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and immunologic control. 2. N Engl J Med. Oct 1 1970;283(14):739-46. [Medline].
Hornick RB, Griesman S. On the pathogenesis of typhoid fever. Arch Intern Med. Mar 1978;138(3):357-9. [Medline].
Hornick RB, Woodward TE. Appraisal of typhoid vaccine in experimentally infected human subjects. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 1967;78:70-8. [Medline].
Huckstep RL. Recent advances in the surgery of typhoid fever. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. Apr 1960;26:207-30. [Medline].
Huckstep RL. Typhoid Fever and Other Salmonella Infections. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone; 1962.
Keitel WA, Bond NL, Zahradnik JM, et al. Clinical and serological responses following primary and booster immunization with Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccines. Vaccine. 1994;12(3):195-9. [Medline].
Keusch GT. Antimicrobial therapy for enteric infections and typhoid fever: state of the art. Rev Infect Dis. Jan-Feb 1988;10 Suppl 1:S199-205. [Medline].
Khosla SN. Changing patterns of typhoid (a reappraisal). Asian Med J. 1982;25:185-98.
Khosla SN. Typhoid hepatitis. Postgrad Med J. Nov 1990;66(781):923-5. [Medline].
Kim JP, Oh SK, Jarrett F. Management of ileal perforation due to typhoid fever. Ann Surg. Jan 1975;181(1):88-91. [Medline].
Klotz SA, Jorgensen JH, Buckwold FJ, et al. Typhoid fever. An epidemic with remarkably few clinical signs and symptoms. Arch Intern Med. Mar 1984;144(3):533-7. [Medline].
Klugman KP, Gilbertson IT, Koornhof HJ, et al. Protective activity of Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever. Lancet. Nov 21 1987;2(8569):1165-9. [Medline].
Klugman KP, Koornhof HJ, Robbins JB. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of Vi vaccine against typhoid fever three years after immunization (abstract). Second Asia-Pacific Symposium on Typhoid Fever and Other Salmonellosis. Bangkok, Thailand: 1994.
Kohbata S, Yokoyama H, Yabuuchi E. Cytopathogenic effect of Salmonella typhi GIFU 10007 on M cells of murine ileal Peyer's patches in ligated ileal loops: an ultrastructural study. Microbiol Immunol. 1986;30(12):1225-37. [Medline].
Lesser, CF, Miller, SI. Salmonellosis. In: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 1. 16th ed. 2005:898-902.
Levine MM, Ferreccio C, Black RE, et al. Large-scale field trial of Ty21a live oral typhoid vaccine in enteric-coated capsule formulation. Lancet. May 9 1987;1(8541):1049-52. [Medline].
Levine MM, Taylor DN, Ferreccio C. Typhoid vaccines come of age. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jun 1989;8(6):374-81. [Medline].
Luby, S, Mintz, E. Typhoid Fever. Health Information for International Travel (CDC). 2005-2006;Web link:[Full Text].
Ly KT, Casanova JE. Mechanisms of Salmonella entry into host cells. Cell Microbiol. Sep 2007;9(9):2103-11. [Medline].
Mandal BK. Salmonella infections. In: Manson-Bahr, PEC, Bell DR, Manson P, eds. Manson's Tropical Medicine. 20th ed. London, UK: Saunders; 1996:849-63.
Mandal BK. Modern treatment of typhoid fever. J Infect. Jan 1991;22(1):1-4. [Medline].
Mani V, Brennand J, Mandal BK. Invasive illness with Salmonella virchow infection. Br Med J. Apr 20 1974;2(5911):143-4. [Medline].
Maskalyk J. Typhoid fever. CMAJ. Jul 22 2003;169(2):132. [Medline].
Meier DE, Imediegwu OO, Tarpley JL. Perforated typhoid enteritis: operative experience with 108 cases. Am J Surg. Apr 1989;157(4):423-7. [Medline].
Murphy JR, Baqar S, Munoz C, et al. Characteristics of humoral and cellular immunity to Salmonella typhi in residents of typhoid-endemic and typhoid-free regions. J Infect Dis. Dec 1987;156(6):1005-9. [Medline].
Nardiello S, Pizzella T, Russo M, et al. Serodiagnosis of typhoid fever by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay determination of anti-Salmonella typhi lipopolysaccharide antibodies. J Clin Microbiol. Oct 1984;20(4):718-21. [Medline].
Osuntokun BO, Bademosi O, Ogunremi K, et al. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of typhoid fever in 959 patients. Arch Neurol. Jul 1972;27(1):7-13. [Medline].
Parker MT. Salmonella. In: Wilson G, Miles A, Parker MT, eds. Topley and Wilson's Principles of Bacteriology, Virology and Immunity. 7th ed. Baltimore, Md: Williams & Wilkins; 1983:332-55.
Parry CM, Karunanayake L, Coulter JB, Beeching NJ. Test for quinolone resistance in typhoid fever. BMJ. Jul 29 2006;333(7561):260-1. [Medline].
Pithie AD, Wood MJ. Treatment of typhoid fever and infectious diarrhoea with ciprofloxacin. J Antimicrob Chemother. Dec 1990;26 Suppl F:47-53. [Medline].
Polish Typhoid Committee. Controlled field trials and laboratory studies on the effectiveness of typhoid vaccines in Poland, 1961-64. Bull World Health Organ. 1966;34(2):211-22. [Medline].
Punjabi NH, Hoffman SL, Edman DC, et al. Treatment of severe typhoid fever in children with high dose dexamethasone. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Aug 1988;7(8):598-600. [Medline].
Punjabi NH, Hoffman SL, Edman DC, Sukri N, Laughlin LW, Pulungsih SP, et al. Treatment of severe typhoid fever in children with high dose dexamethasone. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Aug 1988;7(8):598-600. [Medline].
Raffatellu M, Chessa D, Wilson RP, Dusold R, Rubino S, Bäumler AJ. The Vi capsular antigen of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi reduces Toll-like receptor-dependent interleukin-8 expression in the intestinal mucosa. Infect Immun. Jun 2005;73(6):3367-74. [Medline].
Ramachandran S, Wickremesinghe HR, Perera MV. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in typhoid fever. Br Med J. Mar 1 1975;1(5956):494-5. [Medline].
Robbins JD, Robbins JB. Reexamination of the protective role of the capsular polysaccharide (Vi antigen) of Salmonella typhi. J Infect Dis. Sep 1984;150(3):436-49. [Medline].
Rowland HA. The complications of typhoid fever. J Trop Med Hyg. Jun 1961;64:143-52. [Medline].
Rowland HA. The treatment of typhoid fever. J Trop Med Hyg. May 1961;64:101-10. [Medline].
Rubin FA, Kopecko DJ, Sack RB, et al. Evaluation of a DNA probe for identifying Salmonella typhi in Peruvian and Indonesian bacterial isolates. J Infect Dis. May 1988;157(5):1051-3. [Medline].
Rubin FA, McWhirter PD, Punjabi NH, et al. Use of a DNA probe to detect Salmonella typhi in the blood of patients with typhoid fever. J Clin Microbiol. May 1989;27(5):1112-4. [Medline].
Rubin RH, Weinstein L. Salmonellosis: Microbiologic, Pathologic, and Clinical Features. New York, NY: Stratton Intercontinental; 1977.
Ryan CA, Hargrett-Bean NT, Blake PA. Salmonella typhi infections in the United States, 1975-1984: increasing role of foreign travel. Rev Infect Dis. Jan-Feb 1989;11(1):1-8. [Medline].
Salerno-Goncalves R, Pasetti MF, Sztein MB. Characterization of CD8(+) effector T cell responses in volunteers immunized with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain Ty21a typhoid vaccine. J Immunol. Aug 15 2002;169(4):2196-203. [Medline].
Salerno-Gonçalves R, Wyant TL, Pasetti MF, Fernandez-Viña M, Tacket CO, Levine MM, et al. Concomitant induction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses in volunteers immunized with Salmonella enterica serovar typhi strain CVD 908-htrA. J Immunol. Mar 1 2003;170(5):2734-41. [Medline].
Scottish Home and Health Department. The Aberdeen Typhoid Outbreak. Edinburgh:. HMSO;1964.
Scragg JN, Rubidge CJ. Amoxycillin in the treatment of typhoid fever in children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Sep 1975;24(5):860-5. [Medline].
Scully BE, Nakatomi M, Ores C, et al. Ciprofloxacin therapy in cystic fibrosis. Am J Med. Apr 27 1987;82(4A):196-201. [Medline].
Simanjuntak CH, Paleologo FP, Punjabi NH, et al. Oral immunisation against typhoid fever in Indonesia with Ty21a vaccine. Lancet. Oct 26 1991;338(8774):1055-9. [Medline].
Smith T. The hog-cholera group of bacteria. US Bur Anim Ind Bull. 1894;6:6-40.
Soe GB, Overturf GD. Treatment of typhoid fever and other systemic salmonelloses with cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefoperazone, and other newer cephalosporins. Rev Infect Dis. Jul-Aug 1987;9(4):719-36. [Medline].
Spanò S, Ugalde JE, Galán JE. Delivery of a Salmonella Typhi exotoxin from a host intracellular compartment. Cell Host Microbe. Jan 17 2008;3(1):30-8. [Medline].
Spreng S, Dietrich G, Weidinger G. Rational design of Salmonella-based vaccination strategies. Methods. Feb 2006;38(2):133-43. [Medline].
Stanley PJ, Flegg PJ, Mandal BK, et al. Open study of ciprofloxacin in enteric fever. J Antimicrob Chemother. May 1989;23(5):789-91. [Medline].
Stoleru GH, Le Minor L, Lheritier AM. Polynucleotide sequence divergence among strains of Salmonella sub-genus IV and closely related organisms. Ann Microbiol (Paris). May-Jun 1976;127(4):477-86. [Medline].
Stuart BM, Pullen RL. Typhoid: clinical analysis of three hundred and sixty cases. Arch Intern Med. 1946;78:629-61.
Thielman, NM, Guerrant, RL. Enteric Fever and Other Causes of Abdominal Symptoms with Fever. In: Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 6th ed. 2005:1273-86.
Tran TH, Bethell DB, Nguyen TT, et al. Short course of ofloxacin for treatment of multidrug-resistant typhoid. Clin Infect Dis. Apr 1995;20(4):917-23. [Medline].
Vollaard AM, Ali S, van Asten HA, Widjaja S, Visser LG, Surjadi C, et al. Risk factors for typhoid and paratyphoid fever in Jakarta, Indonesia. JAMA. Jun 2 2004;291(21):2607-15. [Medline].
Walker DH, Le TP, Hoffman S, et al. Typhoid fever. In: Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens, and Practice. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1999.
Woodward TE, Hall HE, Dias-Rivera R, et al. Treatment of typhoid fever. II. Control of clinical manifestations with cortisone. Ann Intern Med. Jan 1951;34(1):10-9. [Medline].
Yugoslav Typhoid Commission. A controlled field trial of the effectiveness of acetone-dried and inactivated and heat-phenol-inactivated typhoid vaccines in Yugoslavia. Bull WHO. 1964;30:623-30.
Zinder ND, Lederberg J. Genetic exchange in Salmonella. J Bacteriol. Nov 1952;64(5):679-99. [Medline].
Further Reading
Keywords
typhoid fever, enteric fever, Eberth disease, Salmonella typhi, S typhi, Salmonella choleraesuis, S choleraesuis, Salmonella enterica, S enterica, Enterobacteriaceae, paratyphoid fever, rose spots, typhoid state, Widal test, pneumotyphoid, typhoid cystitis
