eMedicine Specialties > Infectious Diseases > HEENT Infections

Sinusitis, Acute: Treatment & Medication

Author: Brian E Benson, MD,, Attending Physician, Department of Otolaryngology, St Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center; Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, Hackensack University Medical Center; Director, The Voice Center, Hackensack University Medical Center
Coauthor(s): Linas Riauba, MD, Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine, Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Disease, University Hospital, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey; Tracey Quail Davidoff, MD, Senior Clinical Instructor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Rochester General Hospital
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Feb 10, 2009

Treatment

Medical Care

The goals of therapy in rhinosinusitis are to improve mucociliary function and to control infection.

Surgical Care

Antral puncture and irrigation are used for diagnostic culture and sensitivity testing in immunosuppressed or critically ill patients if the organism must be identified. However, more recent data support the role of endoscopically guided middle meatus cultures instead.

Consultations

  • Ear, nose, and throat specialist for complications or when routine management techniques fail
  • Infectious disease specialist in complicated cases

Medication

Viral rhinosinusitis does not require antimicrobial treatment.

Standard nonantimicrobial treatment options include topical steroids, topical and/or oral decongestants, mucolytics, and intranasal saline spray.

A recent meta-analysis of 4 double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of intranasal corticosteroid treatment in acute rhinosinusitis supports its use as monotherapy or as an adjuvant therapy to antibiotics.11 However, a recent randomized controlled trial of antibiotics and intranasal steroid showed no treatment benefit of intranasal steroids, either alone or with antibiotics.12

Ahovuo-Saloranta et al, in a 2008 Cochrane Review meta-analysis of 57 studies, concluded that antibiotics yield a small treatment effect in a primary care setting in patients with uncomplicated sinusitis whose symptoms have lasted more than 7 days.13 However, another meta-analysis found no treatment effect of antibiotics, even in patients whose symptoms had persisted for more than 10 days.14

No available data suggest that antihistamines are beneficial in acute sinusitis. In fact, antihistamines may cause harm by drying mucous membranes and decreasing clearance of secretions.

Antibiotics

Antibiotic efficacy rates are as follows:

  • Levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and amoxicillin/clavulanate - Greater than 90%
  • High-dose amoxicillin, cefpodoxime proxetil, cefixime, cefuroxime axetil, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole - 80-90%
  • Clindamycin, doxycycline, cefprozil, azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin - 70-80%
  • Cefaclor and loracarbef - 50-60%

Based on the 2000 Sinus and Allergy Health Partnership treatment guidelines for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, patients are divided into 3 groups, as follows:

  • Adults with mild disease who have not received antibiotics: Amoxicillin/clavulanate, amoxicillin (1.5-3.5 g/d), cefpodoxime proxetil, or cefuroxime is recommended as initial therapy.
  • Adults with mild disease who have had antibiotics in the previous 4-6 weeks and adults with moderate disease: Amoxicillin/clavulanate, amoxicillin (3-3.5 g), cefpodoxime proxetil, or cefixime is recommended.
  • Adults with moderate disease who have received antibiotics in the previous 4-6 weeks: Amoxicillin/clavulanate, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, or doxycycline is recommended.

Patients who remain symptomatic despite appropriate antibiotic therapy may be evaluated with sinus endoscopy, CT scanning, or sinus aspiration/culture.


Amoxicillin (Amoxil, Trimox)

First-line antibiotic choice. Interferes with synthesis of cell wall mucopeptides during active multiplication, resulting in bactericidal activity against susceptible bacteria.

Adult

250 mg PO q8h for 10-12 d

Pediatric

Not established

Reduces efficacy of oral contraceptives

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in renal impairment; use during mononucleosis produces a characteristic rash


Penicillin V potassium (Beepen-VK, Pen-Vee K)

First-line antibiotic choice. Inhibits biosynthesis of cell wall mucopeptide. Bactericidal against sensitive organisms when adequate concentrations are reached and most effective during stage of active multiplication. Inadequate concentrations may produce only bacteriostatic effects.

Adult

250 mg PO q6h for 10-12 d

Pediatric

Not established

Probenecid may increase effectiveness by decreasing clearance; tetracyclines are bacteriostatic, causing a decrease in effectiveness when administered concurrently

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Caution in renal impairment; superinfections may occur with prolonged use; reduces efficacy of oral contraceptives


Erythromycin (E.E.S., E-Mycin, Eryc)

First-line treatment in patients allergic to penicillin. Inhibits bacterial growth, possibly by blocking dissociation of peptidyl t-RNA from ribosomes, causing RNA-dependent protein synthesis to arrest.

Adult

250 mg PO q6h for 10-12 d

Pediatric

Not established

Coadministration may increase toxicity of theophylline, digoxin, carbamazepine, benzodiazepines, and cyclosporine; may potentiate anticoagulant effects of warfarin; coadministration with lovastatin and simvastatin increases risk of rhabdomyolysis; may prolong QT interval, resulting in cardiac arrest if combined with nonsedating antihistamines

Documented hypersensitivity; hepatic impairment

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Caution in liver disease; estolate formulation may cause cholestatic jaundice; adverse GI effects are common (give doses pc); discontinue use if nausea, vomiting, malaise, abdominal colic, or fever occur


Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim DS, Septra)

First-line agent with more convenient dosing. Inhibits bacterial growth by inhibiting synthesis of dihydrofolic acid.

Adult

160 mg TMP/800 mg SMZ PO q12h for 10-12 d

Pediatric

<2 months: Do not administer
>2 months: Not established

May increase PT when used with warfarin (perform coagulation tests, and adjust dose accordingly); coadministration with dapsone may increase blood levels of both drugs; coadministration of diuretics increases incidence of thrombocytopenia purpura in elderly persons; phenytoin levels may increase with coadministration; may potentiate effects of methotrexate in bone marrow depression; hypoglycemic response to sulfonylureas may increase with coadministration; may increase levels of zidovudine

Documented hypersensitivity; megaloblastic anemia due to folate deficiency

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Discontinue at first appearance of skin rash or sign of adverse reaction; obtain CBC counts frequently; discontinue therapy if significant hematologic changes occur; goiter, diuresis, and hypoglycemia may occur with sulfonamides; prolonged IV infusions or high doses may cause bone marrow depression (if signs occur, give 5-15 mg/d leucovorin); caution in folate deficiency (eg, people with long-term alcoholism, elderly people, those receiving anticonvulsant therapy, those with malabsorption syndrome); hemolysis may occur in G-6-PD deficiency; patients with AIDS may not tolerate or respond to TMP-SMZ; caution in renal or hepatic impairment (perform urinalyses and renal function tests during therapy); give fluids to prevent crystalluria and stone formation


Cefprozil (Cefzil)

Second-line agent. Binds to one or more of the penicillin-binding proteins, which, in turn, inhibits cell wall synthesis and results in bactericidal activity.

Adult

250-500 mg PO q12h for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Probenecid increases effect; coadministration with furosemide and aminoglycosides increases nephrotoxic effects

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in severe renal insufficiency (high doses may cause CNS toxicity); superinfections and promotion of nonsusceptible organisms may occur with prolonged use or repeated therapy


Cefuroxime (Ceftin)

Second-line agent. Second-generation cephalosporin maintains gram-positive activity of first-generation cephalosporins. Adds activity against Proteus mirabilis, H influenzae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and M catarrhalis.

Adult

250 mg PO bid for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Disulfiramlike reactions may occur when alcohol is consumed within 72 h after taking cefuroxime; may increase hypoprothrombinemic effects of anticoagulants; may increase nephrotoxicity in patients receiving potent diuretics such as loop diuretics; coadministration with aminoglycosides increases nephrotoxic potential; concomitant use with agents that lower gastric pH decreases absorption

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Reduce dosage by half if CrCl is 10-30 mL/min and by three fourths if <10 mL/min (high doses may cause CNS toxicity); bacterial or fungal overgrowth of nonsusceptible organisms may occur with prolonged or repeated therapy


Cefpodoxime (Vantin)

Second-line agent. Binds to one or more penicillin-binding proteins, which, in turn, inhibits cell wall synthesis and results in bactericidal activity.

Adult

100 mg PO q12h for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Probenecid increases effect; coadministration with furosemide and aminoglycosides increases nephrotoxic effects; antacids and H2 blockers decrease absorption

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Reduce dosage by half if CrCl is 10-30 mL/min and by three fourths if <10 mL/min (high doses may cause CNS toxicity); bacterial or fungal overgrowth of nonsusceptible organisms may occur with prolonged or repeated therapy


Cefixime (Suprax)

Second-line agent. By binding to one or more penicillin-binding proteins, arrests bacterial cell wall synthesis and inhibits bacterial growth.

Adult

400 mg PO qd for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Increases carbamazepine levels; coadministration of aminoglycosides increases nephrotoxicity; probenecid may increase effects

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in severe renal insufficiency (high doses may cause CNS toxicity); superinfections and promotion of nonsusceptible organisms may occur with prolonged use or repeated therapy


Amoxicillin and clavulanate (Augmentin)

Second-line agent. Drug combination treats bacteria resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics.

Adult

875 mg PO q12h or 500 mg PO q8h for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Coadministration with warfarin or heparin increases risk of bleeding

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Presence of mononucleosis produces skin rash; interstitial nephritis and renal failure may occur in high doses


Clarithromycin (Biaxin)

Second-line agent. Inhibits bacterial growth, possibly by blocking dissociation of peptidyl t-RNA from ribosomes, causing RNA-dependent protein synthesis to arrest.

Adult

500 mg PO bid for 10 d

Pediatric

Not established

Toxicity increases with coadministration of fluconazole, astemizole, and pimozide; effects decrease and adverse GI effects may increase with coadministration of rifabutin or rifampin; may increase toxicity of anticoagulants, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, digoxin, omeprazole, carbamazepine, ergot alkaloids, triazolam, and HMG CoA-reductase inhibitors; serious cardiac arrhythmia may occur with coadministration of cisapride; plasma levels of certain benzodiazepines may increase, prolonging CNS depression; arrhythmia and increase in QT intervals occur with disopyramide; coadministration with omeprazole may increase plasma levels of both agents

Documented hypersensitivity; coadministration of pimozide or cisapride

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Coadministration with ranitidine or bismuth citrate is not recommended with CrCl <25 mL/min; give half dose or increase dosing interval if CrCl <30 mL/min; diarrhea may be sign of pseudomembranous colitis; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapies


Levofloxacin (Levaquin)

Used to treat acute maxillary sinusitis caused by S pneumoniae, H influenzae, or M catarrhalis. Fluoroquinolones should be used empirically in patients likely to develop exacerbation due to resistant organisms to other antibiotics. This is the L stereoisomer of the D/L parent compound ofloxacin, the D form being inactive. Good monotherapy with extended coverage against Pseudomonas species, as well as excellent activity against pneumococcus. Agent acts by inhibition of DNA gyrase activity. PO form has bioavailability that is reportedly 99%.

Adult

500 mg PO qd for 7-14 d

Pediatric

<18 years: Not recommended
>18 years: Administer as in adults

Antacids, iron salts, and zinc salts may reduce serum levels; administer antacids 2-4 h before or after taking fluoroquinolones; cimetidine may interfere with metabolism of fluoroquinolones; reduces therapeutic effects of phenytoin; probenecid may increase serum concentrations; may increase toxicity of theophylline, caffeine, cyclosporine, and digoxin (monitor digoxin levels); may increase effects of anticoagulants (monitor PT)

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

In prolonged therapy, perform periodic evaluations of organ system functions (eg, renal, hepatic, hematopoietic); adjust dose in renal function impairment; superinfections may occur with prolonged or repeated antibiotic therapy


Doxycycline (Periostat, Doryx, Bio-Tab, Vibramycin Vibra-tabs)

Inhibits protein synthesis, and thus bacterial growth, by binding to 30S and possibly 50S ribosomal subunits of susceptible bacteria.

Adult

100-200 mg PO bid for 14 d

Pediatric

<8 years: Not recommended
>8 years: 2-5 mg/kg/d PO in 1-2 divided doses; not to exceed 200 mg/d

Bioavailability decreases with antacids that contain aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, or bismuth subsalicylate; tetracyclines can increase hypoprothrombinemic effects of anticoagulants; tetracyclines can decrease effects of oral contraceptives, causing breakthrough bleeding and increased risk of pregnancy

Documented hypersensitivity; severe hepatic dysfunction

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Photosensitivity may occur with prolonged exposure to sunlight or tanning equipment; reduce dose in renal impairment; consider drug serum level determinations in prolonged therapy; tetracycline use during tooth development (last half of pregnancy through age 8 y) can cause permanent discoloration of teeth; Fanconilike syndrome may occur with outdated tetracyclines

Topical decongestants

These agents cause vasoconstriction, which reduces nasal congestion.


Phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine)

Produces vasoconstriction. Possibly helpful, not harmful.

Adult

2 puffs q4h prn; not to exceed 3 d of use

Pediatric

Not established

May cause hypertensive crisis in the presence of MAOIs

Documented hypersensitivity; severe hypertension or ventricular tachycardia

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Prolonged use may produce rhinitis medicamentosa; caution in hypertension


Oxymetazoline (Afrin)

Applied directly to mucous membranes. Stimulates alpha-adrenergic receptors and causes vasoconstriction. Decongestion occurs without drastic changes in blood pressure, vascular redistribution, or cardiac stimulation.

Adult

2 puffs in each nostril bid; not to exceed 3 d of use

Pediatric

Not established

Hypotensive action of guanethidine may be reversed; concurrent administration with methyldopa may result in increased vasopressor response; concurrent use of MAOIs and ephedrine may result in hypertensive crisis; pressor sensitivity to mixed-acting agents, such as ephedrine, may be increased; guanethidine potentiates effects of epinephrine and inhibits effects of ephedrine; phenothiazines may reverse action of nasal decongestants; TCAs potentiate vasopressor response and may result in dysrhythmia

Documented hypersensitivity; MAOI therapy; angle-closure glaucoma

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Caution in hyperthyroidism, coronary artery and ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, increased intraocular pressure, or prostatic hypertrophy; because of increase in vasoconstriction, patients who are hypertensive may experience change in blood pressure; may produce rhinitis medicamentosa


Guaifenesin (Anti-Tuss, Humibid LA, Robitussin)

Increases respiratory tract fluid secretions and helps to loosen phlegm and bronchial secretions. Indicated for patients with bronchiectasis complicated by tenacious mucous and/or mucous plugs.

Adult

600-mg SR tab 1-2 tab PO q12h

Pediatric

<2 years: Not recommended
2-6 years: One-half tab PO q12h
6-12 years: 1 tab q12h
>12 years: Administer as in adults

May increase renal clearance of urate and lower serum uric acid levels
May interfere with urine laboratory tests for 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and urine testing for catecholamines

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

When prescribing medication that may suppress cough, important to identify cause of the cough and that suppression will not increase risk of clinical or physiologic complications

Corticosteroids: Topical decongestants

These agents are beneficial, especially if underlying rhinitis is present.


Beclomethasone (Beconase, Vancenase)

Has potent vasoconstrictive and anti-inflammatory activity. Has a weak hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis inhibitory potency when applied topically.

Adult

2 puffs in each nostril bid for 3 wk

Pediatric

Not established

Documented hypersensitivity; viral, fungal, and bacterial skin infections

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Prolonged use may increase systemic absorption of corticosteroids and may cause Cushing syndrome, reversible HPA axis suppression, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria; nasal septum perforation, angioedema, and bronchospasm may occur


Triamcinolone (Nasacort, Nasacort AQ)

Decreases inflammation by suppressing migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and reversing capillary permeability.

Adult

2 puffs in each nostril qd

Pediatric

Not established

Documented hypersensitivity; fungal, viral, and bacterial skin infections

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Prolonged use can result in systemic absorption, which may cause Cushing syndrome, reversible HPA axis suppression, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria; nasal septum perforation, angioedema, or bronchospasm may occur


Flunisolide (AeroBid, Nasalide)

Inhibits bronchoconstriction mechanisms. Produces direct smooth muscle relaxation. May decrease number and activity of inflammatory cells, in turn decreasing airway hyperresponsiveness.
Decreases inflammation by suppressing migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and reversing capillary permeability. Does not depress the hypothalamus.

Adult

2 sprays/nostril bid/tid (25 mcg/spray)

Pediatric

<6 years: Not established
>6 years: 1 spray/nostril tid or 2 sprays/nostril bid (25 mcg/spray)

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Educate patient that this agent is not to be used as a rescue treatment for acute bronchospasm

More on Sinusitis, Acute

Overview: Sinusitis, Acute
Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Sinusitis, Acute
Treatment & Medication: Sinusitis, Acute
Follow-up: Sinusitis, Acute
References

References

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Further Reading

Keywords

acute sinusitis, rhinosinusitis, acute rhinosinusitis, common cold, seasonal allergy, bacterial infection, flu, Streptococcus pneumoniae, S pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, H influenzae, acute ethmomaxillary sinusitis, rhinitis, subacute sinusitis, subacute rhinosinusitis, maxillary sinusitis, ethmoidal sinusitis, frontal sinusitis, sphenoidal viral sinusitis, bacterial sinusitis, fungal orbital sinusitis, intracranial sinusitis, maxillary rhinosinusitis, ethmoidal rhinosinusitis, frontal rhinosinusitis, sphenoidal viral rhinosinusitis, bacterial rhinosinusitis, fungal orbital rhinosinusitis, intracranial rhinosinusitis, acute viral rhinosinusitis, acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, acute viral sinusitis, acute bacterial sinusitis

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Brian E Benson, MD,, Attending Physician, Department of Otolaryngology, St Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center; Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, Hackensack University Medical Center; Director, The Voice Center, Hackensack University Medical Center
Brian E Benson, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Otolaryngic Allergy, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, and Sigma Xi
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Linas Riauba, MD, Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine, Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Disease, University Hospital, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
Linas Riauba, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Tracey Quail Davidoff, MD, Senior Clinical Instructor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Rochester General Hospital
Tracey Quail Davidoff, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Forensic Examiners, American College of Physicians, and American Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Thomas Herchline, MD, Professor of Medicine, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine; Medical Director, Public Health, Dayton and Montgomery County, Ohio
Thomas Herchline, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Managing Editor

Gordon L Woods, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center
Gordon L Woods, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Society of General Internal Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Eleftherios Mylonakis, MD, Clinical and Research Fellow, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital
Eleftherios Mylonakis, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Burke A Cunha, MD, Professor of Medicine, State University of New York School of Medicine at Stony Brook; Chief, Infectious Disease Division, Winthrop-University Hospital
Burke A Cunha, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
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