Nephrosclerosis Treatment & Management

  • Author: Fernando C Fervenza, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Vecihi Batuman, MD, FACP, FASN   more...
 
Updated: Feb 25, 2010
 

Medical Care

BP control is closely linked to the decline in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular mortality rates over the last 3 decades. Epidemiologic studies underscore that even modest decrements of renal function, usually identified by a serum creatinine level of greater than 1.4 mg/dL or estimated GFR of less than 60 mL/min, magnify long-term cardiovascular risk. One interpretation of these findings is that nephrosclerosis is part of generalized vascular disease elsewhere. With regard to antihypertensive therapy and ACE inhibitor administration, patients with cardiovascular disease and impaired renal function benefit proportionately more than those with normal kidney function. The National Kidney Foundation has identified that a reduction in the cardiovascular risks associated with renal disease is a critical focus of the care of patients with renal disease.

Treatment of hypertension in patients with parenchymal renal disease is also effective in preserving renal function, particularly in proteinuric renal diseases such as diabetic nephropathy. Similarly, positive evidence suggests that antihypertensive treatment protects renal function in patients with malignant hypertension.

Remarkably, whether treating hypertension is effective to prevent ESRD attributed to hypertensive nephrosclerosis is not clear. This is surprising because the percent of patients aware of their hypertension has increased from 51% to 84% over the last 20 years. At the same time, the percent of patients on medications increased from 36% to 73%. However, studies have shown that BP is adequately controlled (< 140/90 mm Hg) in only 25-30% of patients taking antihypertensive medication.

Early data from large treatment surveys provide little information on the ability of antihypertensive treatment to prevent progressive renal deterioration in patients with essential hypertension. For example, Beevers and Lip (1996) analyzed the combined results of 9 major treatment trials of mild hypertension, which included 21,826 patients.[21] According to their analysis, the number of patients randomized to active treatment who subsequently developed renal failure was the same (ie, 50) as those patients who were randomized to placebo treatment.

Similarly, among the 2125 cases of men with hypertension followed by Madhavan et al (1995), no evidence showed that controlling BP influenced renal function.[22] Patients with hypertension who were treated for up to 5 years exhibited GFRs and renal plasma flow rates similar to those obtained in patients who were not treated. In the Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program (HDFP), renal function was found to decline in some patients despite optimal antihypertensive treatment.

Zucchelli and Zuccalà (1998) followed the cases of 30 patients with essential hypertension for more than 20 years.[23] In 15 of these patients, renal function was maintained, while the other 15 patients showed the onset of renal impairment. Both groups were matched for age, sex, and treatment duration. At the end of the study, BP profiles indicated similar or better pressure control in patients with progressive renal disease compared with patients with normal renal function.

Similarly, Rostand et al (1989) retrospectively reviewed the records of 181 patients with hypertension.[24] In patients with a primary renal disease diagnosed based on either suggestive medical history or renal biopsy findings, those with urinary protein excretion greater than or equal to 1.5 g/d or a serum creatinine level greater than or equal to 1.5 mg/dL were excluded from the analysis. Ninety-four patients were considered as having essential hypertension. Fourteen patients (15%) had an increase in their serum creatinine level greater than 0.4 mg/dL from baseline. However, renal function declined and was independent of the degree of BP control. In addition, Whelton and Klag (1989) reviewed 6 large antihypertensive treatment trials and reported that the total number of renal events was small, with no statistical difference between the treated groups and the placebo groups.[25]

Toto et al (1995) reported on a long-term, prospective, randomized trial of 87 patients with the clinical diagnosis of hypertensive nephrosclerosis to determine whether strict versus conventional BP control was associated with a slower decline in renal function.[26] In this trial, strict control of BP (ie, mean diastolic BP of 81 mm Hg ± 0.8) was not better than conventional BP control (ie, mean diastolic BP of 86.7 mm Hg ± 1.1) for preserving renal function; however, both groups experienced a slow decline in the GFR.

Hsu (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials of antihypertensive drug therapy of more than 1 year's duration that reported renal dysfunction as an outcome.[27] Trials enrolling only those patients with known renal insufficiency or established renal parenchymal disease were excluded. Totals included 26,521 individuals, 114,000 person-years, and 317 renal outcomes. This meta-analysis failed to demonstrate a difference between treated and untreated subjects regarding the development of ESRD. Notable limitations of this study were that (1) the study did not address how stricter or longer-term control of BP would affect the incidence of renal dysfunction, and (2) the study was unable to evaluate the effects of newer classes of antihypertensive medications, such as ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs).

Similarly, Ruilope et al (2001) reported on the renal function effect of intensive lowering of BP in hypertensive participants of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) study.[28] Baseline serum creatinine values were available in 18,597 patients. Among them, 470 subjects had a serum creatinine value higher than 1.5 mg/dL. Their conclusion was that, in contrast to patients with normal renal function, the frequency of major cardiovascular events did not differ in the 3 groups of patients with mild renal insufficiency randomized to different diastolic BP targets. In most patients, no significant changes in serum creatinine values were noted at the end of the 3- to 9-year treatment period. However, a small group of patients (0.58% of the total study population) had deterioration of renal function (increase of >30% over baseline and final serum creatinine values >2 mg/dL) despite a satisfactory reduction in diastolic BP.

A criticism to the study is that systolic BP remained more than 10 mm Hg (mean) above the goal of less than 130 mm Hg, which has been recommended for patients with high serum creatinine levels, and the attained BP differed by only 4 mm Hg among the lowest and highest target groups (139.7-143.7 mm Hg). Whether tighter systolic BP control could have had an impact in this population with progressive renal impairment cannot be addressed with the available data. In any case, the group of hypertensive patients in whom renal function progressively deteriorated was small.

Studies of black patients with hypertension have not consistently shown a benefit of BP control on the progression of renal disease. Determining whether more intense BP control may slow renal disease progression in black patients is the objective of the AASK trial.

The study involved 1094 black people aged 18-70 years with GFRs from 20-65 mL/min/1.73 m2 and no other identified causes of renal insufficiency. Based on a 3 X 2 factorial design, participants were randomized equally to a usual mean arterial pressure goal of 102-107 mm Hg or to a lower goal of 94 mm Hg or lower and to treatment with 1 of 3 antihypertensive drugs (ie, beta-blocker, ACE inhibitor, calcium channel blocker). The primary analysis was based on the rate of change in GFR (GFR slope). Secondary outcome included confirmed reduction in GFR by 50% or by 25 mL/min/1.73 m2 from the mean of the 2 baseline GFRs, ESRD, or death.

After randomization, BP decreased from 152/96 mm Hg to 128/78 mm Hg in the lower BP group and from 149/95 mm Hg to 141/85 mm Hg in the usual BP goal group. A mean separation of approximately 10 mm Hg mean arterial pressure was maintained throughout most of the follow-up period. However, the mean GFR decline did not differ significantly between the lower and the usual BP groups during the total follow-up period from baseline to 4 years. Similarly, the number of events (ie, rates/participant year) for the main clinical composite outcome (ie, declining GFR events, ESRD, death) was no different between the BP groups. As such, results of the AASK trial do not support additional BP reduction as a strategy to prevent progression of hypertensive nephrosclerosis.

These results are in agreement with previous findings in the MDRD study, which showed no effect on GFR decline in patients assigned to rigorous BP control (goal mean arterial pressure < 92 mm Hg in participants < 60 y or < 98 mm Hg in participants >60 y) compared with the usual BP goal (ie, < 107 mm Hg in participants < 60 y or < 113 mm Hg in participants >60 y). However, further analysis showed a protective effect of tight BP control in patients with proteinuria at baseline.

Finally, the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) prospectively studied the relationship between baseline BP and an incident decline in kidney function among 2182 participants older than 65 years with serum creatinine values less than 2 mg/dL enrolled in the placebo arm of the study. A decline in kidney function was defined as an increase in serum creatinine values of greater than or equal to 0.4 mg/dL. Over the 5 years of follow-up, 226 subjects experienced an increase in serum creatinine values of greater than or equal to 0.4 mg/dL. The incidence and relative risk of a decline in kidney function increased at higher levels of BP for all BP components (systolic, diastolic, pulse, and mean arterial pressure, independent of age, gender, ethnicity, smoking, diabetes, and history of cardiovascular disease).

Systolic BP imparted the highest risk of decline in kidney function, with the risk tending to be greater in persons with diabetes and in black persons. Among the limitations of this work is the failure to identify the relative contribution of patients in these 2 categories to the total of the 226 persons who showed evidence of declining kidney function. In addition, the absence of a comparison group of subjects with normal systolic BP makes it difficult to fully estimate the effect of systolic BP on kidney function.

Taken together, in the universe of individuals with essential hypertension, a review of the evidence shows that (1) in patients with essential hypertensive nephrosclerosis, the absolute risk of developing renal insufficiency that will lead to ESRD is low (as opposed to hypertension being a promoter of existing renal disease, which is well established), and (2) the progression of renal disease is not clearly related to hypertension per se because therapeutical trials have failed to demonstrate that intensive antihypertensive therapy slows the progression of renal diseases attributed to hypertensive nephrosclerosis.

The indications, effects, and adverse effects of the most commonly used antihypertensive medications are outlined below.

Diuretics

  • Effects and indications
    • Induce natriuresis
    • Thiazide-induced vasodilation occurs
    • Reduce target organ morbidity and mortality in hypertension
    • Maximal BP-lowering effects achieved at low doses (12.5-25 mg/d)
    • Potentiate antihypertensive effects of all other blood pressure medications
    • Antihypertensive effect observed in all demographic groups
    • Thiazides superior to loop diuretics as antihypertensive agents.
  • Adverse effects
    • Hypokalemia (dose dependent)
    • Hyperlipidemia (usually short-lived)
    • Glucose intolerance (dose dependent)
    • Hyperuricemia and gout (dose dependent)
    • Thiazides ineffective when GFR is less than 30 mL/min
    • Impotence
    • Hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (dose dependent)

ACE inhibitors

  • Effects and indications
    • Reduce proteinuria
    • Specific renal protective effect both in diabetic and nondiabetic renal impairment
    • Reduce morbidity and mortality rates in congestive heart failure
    • Monotherapy less effective in older patients (>50 y)
    • Larger doses required in black patients
    • Inhibit or blunt all adverse metabolic effects of thiazides
    • Dose reduction required in renal failure
    • Reduce left ventricular hypertrophy and thirst
  • Adverse effects
    • Cough (approximately 10%)
    • Angioedema (rare)
    • Hyperkalemia (especially in renal tubular acidosis type IV)
    • GFR reduction in patients with impaired renal function
    • May precipitate acute renal failure in patients with renal artery stenosis
    • Interfere with breakdown of bradykinin
    • Contraindicated in pregnancy

Angiotensin II receptor antagonists

  • Effects and indications
    • Reduce proteinuria
    • Indicated in patients intolerant of ACE inhibitors
    • Can be used in combination with an ACE inhibitor
    • Do not cause cough
    • Reduce left ventricular hypertrophy and thirst similarly to ACE inhibitors
    • Do not interfere with breakdown of bradykinin
  • Adverse effects
    • Hyperkalemia
    • May reduce GFR in patients with impaired renal function
    • May precipitate acute renal failure in patient with renal artery stenosis
    • Angioedema (rare)
    • Contraindicated in pregnancy
    • Data in black patients limited

Renin inhibitors

  • Effects and indications
    • New class of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) blocker
    • Long half-life, effective 24-hour BP reduction with once-daily dosing
    • Reduce proteinuria in patients with diabetes
    • No data documenting renoprotection
    • Additive BP reduction with ACE or ARB
  • Adverse effects
    • More hyperkalemia with dual (ie, ACE, ARB) therapy
    • Less (ie, one half to one third the rate) cough than with ACE inhibitors
    • No bradykinin inhibition, rare angioedema (0.06%)
    • Contraindicated in pregnancy

Calcium channel blockers

  • Effects and indications
    • Effective as monotherapy in black patients and elderly patients
    • Potentiate ACE inhibitor effects
    • Renal protection not proven
    • Reduce morbidity and mortality rates in congestive heart failure
    • Indicated in patients with diastolic dysfunction
    • No change in dose with renal failure
  • Adverse effects
    • Possible increase in cardiovascular mortality rate with short-acting dihydropyridines
    • Edema
    • Constipation (verapamil)
    • Profound bradycardia possible when verapamil and diltiazem used in combination with a beta-blocker

Beta-blockers

  • Effects and indications
    • Precise mechanism of antihypertensive action unknown
    • Suppress renin secretion
    • Reduce morbidity and mortality rates after myocardial infarction
    • Possible dose adjustment of some beta-blockers required in renal failure
    • Monotherapy less effective in black patients[29]
  • Adverse effects
    • Bradyarrhythmia
    • Hypoglycemia unawareness
    • Bronchospasm
    • May precipitate heart failure
    • Depression
    • Lowers high-density lipoprotein levels and increases triglyceride levels

Direct vasodilators

  • Effects and indications
    • Arteriolar dilation by blocking arterial wall calcium uptake
    • Effective in severe hypertension (minoxidil is better than hydralazine)
    • Minoxidil most potent vasodilator available for oral use
    • No dose adjustment in renal failure
    • Best used in combination with a diuretic plus a beta-blocker
  • Adverse effects
    • Reflex activation of sympathetic nervous system (headache, tachycardia)
    • Activation of renin-angiotensin system (sodium retention)
    • Loop diuretic possibly required to control edema
    • Hirsutism (minoxidil)
    • T-wave inversion in approximately 50% of patients on minoxidil

Central-acting alpha-2 agonists

  • Effects and indications
    • Methyldopa drug of choice in pregnancy
    • Hypertensive emergency (clonidine)
    • Clonidine useful when patient has migraine in association with hypertension
  • Adverse effects
    • Sedation
    • Orthostatic hypotension
    • Dry mouth, skin irritation (clonidine patch)
    • Rebound hypertension upon abrupt discontinuation
    • Possible Coombs-positive hemolytic anemia with methyldopa

Alpha-1 antagonists

  • Effects and indications
    • Improve insulin sensitivity
    • Improve urine flow in patients with benign prostatic hypertrophy
    • Reduce total cholesterol and triglyceride levels and increase high-density lipoprotein levels
  • Adverse effects
    • Orthostatic hypotension
    • Caution when using in patients with autonomic neuropathy
Proceed to Medication
 
 
Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Fernando C Fervenza, MD, PhD  Professor of Medicine, Mayo Graduate School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Mayo Clinic

Fernando C Fervenza, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, American Society of Nephrology, International Society of Nephrology, and National Kidney Foundation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Stephen C Textor, MD  Professor of Medicine, Mayo Clinical College of Medicine; Consultant, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic; Participating Author, Joint National Commission Guidelines VI

Stephen C Textor, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Heart Association, American Society of Hypertension, American Society of Nephrology, and International Society of Nephrology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David Rosenthal, MD  Staff Nephrologist, Department of Nephrology, Kaiser Permanente

David Rosenthal, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Hypertension

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Chike Magnus Nzerue, MD  Associate Dean for Clinical Affairs, Meharry Medical College

Chike Magnus Nzerue, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Society of Nephrology, and National Kidney Foundation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine

Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Eleanor Lederer, MD  Consulting Staff, Louisville VA Hospital; Professor of Medicine; Interim Chief of Nephrology; Director of Nephrology Training Program; Director, Metabolic Stone Clinic; Director of Outpatient Clinics, Kidney Disease Program, University of Louisville School of Medicine

Eleanor Lederer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Federation for Medical Research, American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, American Society of Nephrology, American Society of Transplantation, International Society of Nephrology, Kentucky Medical Association, National Kidney Foundation, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Rebecca J Schmidt, DO, FACP, FASN  Professor of Medicine, Section Chief, Department of Medicine, Section of Nephrology, West Virginia University School of Medicine

Rebecca J Schmidt, DO, FACP, FASN is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, American Society of Nephrology, International Society of Nephrology, National Kidney Foundation, Renal Physicians Association, and West Virginia State Medical Association

Disclosure: Abbott Grant/research funds Speaking and teaching; Genzyme Honoraria Consulting; Amgen Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Ortho Biotech Honoraria Speaking and teaching

Chief Editor

Vecihi Batuman, MD, FACP, FASN  Professor of Medicine, Section of Nephrology-Hypertension, Tulane University School of Medicine; Chief, Medicine Service, Southeast Louisiana Veterans Health Care System

Vecihi Batuman, MD, FACP, FASN is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society of Hypertension, American Society of Nephrology, and International Society of Nephrology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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Nephrosclerosis. The glomerular tuft is shrunken, with wrinkling of the capillary walls (asterisk), global glomerular sclerosis (arrow), and complete obliteration of the capillary loops and glomerular ischemia (periodic acid-Schiff stain at 250X magnification).
Nephrosclerosis. Glomerulus with wrinkling of glomerular basement membranes accompanied by reduction of capillary lumen diameter (silver stain at 400X magnification).
Nephrosclerosis. Hyaline arteriosclerosis with hyaline deposits (arrows) (trichrome stain at 250X magnification).
Nephrosclerosis. Fibrointimal proliferation of the arcuate artery (periodic acid-Schiff stain at 150X magnification).
 
 
 
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