eMedicine Specialties > Neurosurgery > Miscellaneous

Pseudocholinesterase Deficiency

Author: Daniel R Alexander, MD, Consulting Staff, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pathology, Franklin Square Hospital Center
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Updated: May 1, 2009

Introduction

Background

Pseudocholinesterase deficiency is an inherited enzyme abnormality that results in abnormally slow metabolic degradation of exogenous choline ester drugs such as succinylcholine. A variety of pathologic conditions, physiologic alterations, and medications also can lower plasma pseudocholinesterase activity.¹

This condition is recognized most often when respiratory paralysis unexpectedly persists for a prolonged period of time following administration of standard doses of succinylcholine.² The mainstay of treatment in these cases is ventilatory support until diffusion of succinylcholine from the myoneural junction permits return of neuromuscular function of skeletal muscle. The diagnosis is confirmed by a laboratory assay demonstrating decreased plasma cholinesterase enzyme activity.

Pathophysiology

Pseudocholinesterase is a glycoprotein enzyme, produced by the liver, circulating in the plasma. It specifically hydrolyzes exogenous choline esters; however, it has no known physiologic function.

Pseudocholinesterase deficiency results in delayed metabolism of only a few compounds of clinical significance, including the following: succinylcholine, mivacurium, procaine, and cocaine.³ Of these, its most clinically important substrate is the depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agent, succinylcholine, which the pseudocholinesterase enzyme hydrolyzes to succinylmonocholine and then to succinic acid.

In individuals with normal plasma levels of normally functioning pseudocholinesterase enzyme, hydrolysis and inactivation of approximately 90-95% of an intravenous dose of succinylcholine occurs before it reaches the neuromuscular junction. The remaining 5-10% of the succinylcholine dose acts as an acetylcholine receptor agonist at the neuromuscular junction, causing prolonged depolarization of the postsynaptic junction of the motor-end plate. This depolarization initially triggers fasciculation of skeletal muscle. As a result of prolonged depolarization, endogenous acetylcholine released from the presynaptic membrane of the motor neuron does not produce any additional change in membrane potential after binding to its receptor on the myocyte. Flaccid paralysis of skeletal muscles develops within 1 minute.

In normal subjects, skeletal muscle function returns to normal approximately 5 minutes after a single bolus injection of succinylcholine as it passively diffuses away from the neuromuscular junction. Pseudocholinesterase deficiency can result in higher levels of intact succinylcholine molecules reaching receptors in the neuromuscular junction, causing the duration of paralytic effect to continue for as long as 8 hours.

This condition is recognized clinically when paralysis of the respiratory and other skeletal muscles fails to spontaneously resolve after succinylcholine is administered as an adjunctive paralytic agent during anesthesia procedures.

Frequency

International

Pseudocholinesterase deficiency is most common in people of European descent; it is rare in Asians.

Clinical

History

A personal or family history of an adverse drug reaction to one of the choline ester compounds, such as succinylcholine, mivacurium, or cocaine, may be the only clue suggesting pseudocholinesterase deficiency.

Physical

No characteristic physical examination findings correlate with the presence of pseudocholinesterase deficiency.

Causes

Most clinically significant causes of pseudocholinesterase deficiency are due to one or more inherited abnormal alleles that code for the synthesis of the enzyme.

• These abnormal alleles may result in a failure to produce normal amounts of the enzyme or in production of abnormal forms of pseudocholinesterase with altered structure and lacking full enzymatic function, as described below.
• Patients with only partial deficiencies of inherited pseudocholinesterase enzyme activity often do not manifest clinically significant prolongation of paralysis following administration of succinylcholine unless a concomitant acquired cause of pseudocholinesterase deficiency is present. The acquired causes of pseudocholinesterase deficiency include a variety of physiologic conditions, pathologic states, and medications listed below.

Inherited causes

Inherited causes of pseudocholinesterase deficiency include the following:

The gene that codes for the pseudocholinesterase enzyme is located at the E1 locus on the long arm of chromosome 3, and 96% of the population is homozygous for the normal pseudocholinesterase genotype, which is designated as EuEu.

The remaining 4% of the population carries one or more of the following atypical gene alleles for the pseudocholinesterase gene in either a heterozygous or homozygous fashion.

Table 1. Atypical Gene Alleles for the Pseudocholinesterase Genotype

Open table in new window

*These alleles may occur either in the homozygous form or in any heterozygous combination with each other, with the normal Eu allele, or with a number of additional rare variant abnormal alleles.

In individuals with an inherited form of pseudocholinesterase deficiency, only a single atypical allele is carried in a heterozygous fashion, resulting in a partial deficiency in enzyme activity, which manifests as a slightly prolonged duration of paralysis, longer than 5 minutes but shorter than 1 hour, following administration of succinylcholine. Less than 0.1% of the general population carries 2 pseudocholinesterase gene allele mutations that will produce clinically significant effects from succinylcholine lasting longer than 1 hour.

One rare variant allele of the pseudocholinesterase gene, designated the C5 variant, actually has higher than normal enzyme activity, resulting in relative resistance to the paralytic effects of succinylcholine.

The dibucaine-resistant genetic variant form of pseudocholinesterase is identified by the percent inhibition of hydrolysis of benzyl choline caused by the addition of dibucaine to the pseudocholinesterase enzymatic assay. The dibucaine number is the percent inhibition of hydrolysis of benzyl choline by dibucaine added to the plasma sample. The normal dibucaine number for the homozygous typical genotype (EuEu) is 80%. Individuals homozygous for the atypical dibucaine resistant genotype (EaEa) have a dibucaine number of 20%, which correlates with a marked prolongation of the paralytic effect of standard doses of succinylcholine to well over 1-hour duration. Heterozygotes (EuEa) have intermediate dibucaine numbers and modest prolongation of muscle paralysis with succinylcholine. The EuEa heterozygous genotype is found in 2.5% of the general population, making it more common than all other abnormal pseudocholinesterase genotypes combined.

The fluoride-resistant pseudocholinesterase enzyme variant is identified by its percent inhibition of benzyl choline hydrolysis when fluoride is added to the assay. The fluoride number (percentage inhibition of enzyme activity in the presence of fluoride) is 60% for the EuEu genotype and is 36% for the EfEf genotype. This homozygous fluoride-resistant genotype exhibits mild to moderate prolongation of succinylcholine-induced paralysis. The heterozygous fluoride-resistant genotype usually is clinically insignificant unless accompanied by a second abnormal allele or by a coexisting acquired cause of pseudocholinesterase deficiency.

The most severe form of inherited pseudocholinesterase deficiency occurs in only 1 in 100,000 individuals who are homozygous for the silent Es genotype, with no detectible pseudocholinesterase enzyme activity. These individuals may exhibit prolonged muscle paralysis for as long as 8 hours following a single dose of succinylcholine. Gene mutations that produce silent alleles are caused by frameshift or stop codon mutations, resulting in no functional pseudocholinesterase enzyme synthesis.

Acquired causes

Acquired causes of pseudocholinesterase deficiency include the following:

People, such as neonates, elderly individuals, and pregnant women, with certain physiologic conditions may have lower plasma pseudocholinesterase activity.

Pathologic conditions that may lower plasma pseudocholinesterase activity include the following:

• Chronic infections (tuberculosis)
• Extensive burn injuries
• Liver disease
• Malignancy
• Malnutrition
• Organophosphate pesticide poisoning
• Uremia

Iatrogenic causes

Iatrogenic causes of lower plasma pseudocholinesterase activity include plasmapheresis and medications such as the following:

• Anticholinesterase inhibitors
• Bambuterol
• Chlorpromazine
• Contraceptives
• Cyclophosphamide
• Echothiophate eye drops
• Esmolol
• Glucocorticoids
• Hexafluorenium
• Metoclopramide
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
• Pancuronium
• Phenelzine
• Tetrahydroaminacrine

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