eMedicine Specialties > Obstetrics and Gynecology > Gynecologic Oncology

Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumors

Author: Chad M Michener, MD, Assistant Professor, Obstetrics/ Gynecology and Women's Health Institute, Section of Gynecologic Oncology, The Cleveland Clinic
Coauthor(s): David C Starks, MD, Fellow, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Jan 4, 2010

Introduction

Background

Three major types of ovarian neoplasms are described, with epithelial cell tumors (>70%) comprising the largest group of tumors. Germ cell tumors occur less frequently (20%), while sex cord–stromal tumors make up the smallest proportion, accounting for approximately 8% of all ovarian neoplasms.

Granulosa-theca cell tumors, more commonly known as granulosa cell tumors (GCTs), belong to the sex cord–stromal category and include tumors composed of granulosa cells, theca cells, and fibroblasts in varying degrees and combinations. GCTs account for approximately 2% of all ovarian tumors and can be divided into adult (95%) and juvenile (5%) types based on histologic findings.

Both subtypes commonly produce estrogen, and estrogen production often is the reason for early diagnosis. However, while adult GCTs (AGCTs) usually occur in postmenopausal women and have late recurrences, most juvenile GCTs (JGCTs) develop in individuals younger than 30 years and often recur within the first 3 years. Theca cell tumors almost always are benign and carry an excellent prognosis. The rare malignant thecoma likely represents a tumor with a small admixture of granulosa cells. For this reason, the remainder of the article focuses on GCTs, except where indicated.

Recognition of the signs and symptoms of abnormal hormone production and consideration of these tumors in the differential diagnosis of an adnexal mass can allow for early identification, timely surgical management, and excellent cure rates. Despite the good overall prognosis, long-term follow-up always is required in patients with GCTs.

Pathophysiology

Two theories exist to explain the etiology of sex cord–stromal tumors. The first proposes that these neoplasms are derived from the mesenchyme of the developing genital ridge. The second purports that sex cord and stromal cells of the mature ovary are derived from precursors found within the mesonephric and coelomic epithelium.

Reports of extraovarian GCTs can be found in the literature and may lend support to the derivation of this class of tumors from epithelium of the coelom and mesonephric duct.

Various theories propose explanations for the differentiation of normal granulosa and/or stromal cells into neoplastic entities. To date, no clear etiologic process has been identified. Initiation of growth in GCTs likely is multifactorial.

GCTs are thought to be tumors of low malignant potential. Most of these tumors follow a benign course, with only a small percentage showing aggressive behavior. Metastatic disease can involve any organ system, although tumor growth usually is confined to the abdomen and pelvis.

Frequency

United States

Approximately 25,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed in the United States each year. This disease accounts for more than 14,000 deaths in the United States annually and is the leading cause of death from gynecologic malignancies. Because sex cord–stromal tumors account for only 5% of all ovarian tumors and approximately 8% of all malignant ovarian neoplasms, each year only 1500-2000 new cases of these tumors are diagnosed in the United States.

International

Unlike epithelial ovarian cancers, no racial or ethnic predilection is found for ovarian germ cell or sex cord–stromal tumors. The incidence of this group of tumors essentially is the same throughout the world, as witnessed by similar frequency of these tumors in Japan, Sweden, and the West Indies.

Mortality/Morbidity

AGCTs and JGCTs have very good cure rates due to the early stage of disease at diagnosis. More than 90% of AGCTs and JGCTs are diagnosed before spread occurs outside the ovary. Five-year survival rates usually are 90-95% for stage I tumors compared to 25-50% for patients presenting with advanced-stage disease. Although 5-year survival rates are quite good, AGCTs have a propensity for late recurrence, some occurring as many as 37 years after diagnosis. Mean survival after the diagnosis of a recurrence is 5 years.

• Approximately 20% of patients diagnosed with GCTs die of their disease over the course of their lifetime.
• Morbidity related to GCTs primarily is due to endocrine manifestations of the disease. Physical changes brought on by high estrogen levels from the tumor usually regress upon removal of the tumor. However, a small group of patients present with symptoms of androgen excess from the tumor. Changes caused by androgen excess may be permanent or may only partially regress over time.
• Serious estrogen effects can occur in various end organs. Unopposed estrogen production by these tumors has been shown to cause stimulation of the endometrium. Anywhere from 30-50% of patients develop endometrial hyperplasia and another 8-33% have endometrial adenocarcinoma. Patients also may be at an increased risk for breast cancer, although a direct correlation has been difficult to prove.

Race

Limited available data show that this class of neoplasms makes up a similar proportion of ovarian malignancies in the United States, Europe, the Far East, and the West Indies.

Sex

Granulosa cell tumors can occur in the juvenile and adult male testes, albeit very rarely. The frequency of GCTs in the male testes is even lower than that of GCTs in females and is the least common sex cord stromal tumor in the testes.

Age

• AGCTs account for 95% of all GCTs and usually are seen in postmenopausal women, with a median age at diagnosis of 52 years.
• JGCTs comprise only 5% of all GCTs, and almost all of these tumors are found in patients younger than 30 years.
• Theca cell tumors (ie, thecomas) account for less than 1% of all ovarian tumors, and the mean age at diagnosis is 53 years. These tumors are rare in women younger than 30 years, with the exception of the luteinized thecoma, which tends to occur in younger women.

Clinical

History

Many patients with GCTs present with manifestations of hyperestrogenism. Approximately 70% of these tumors are hormonally active. Hormonal influences can cause different presenting symptoms depending on patient age and menstrual status. Although these symptoms can be quite profound, often they may be secondary findings in patients with complaints relating to the abdomen and pelvis.

Reports of increasing abdominal girth and abdominal discomfort are quite common. Most patients have a palpable mass found during examination. Abdominal symptoms may be due to enlargement of the mass but also can be due to the production of ascites, which occurs in approximately 10% of patients. Increasing size of the mass also can lead to symptoms associated with compression of adjacent structures, such as abdominal pain, dysuria, urinary frequency, and constipation.

Acute onset of abdominal pain also can occur, although rarely. Acute abdominal or pelvic pain may be observed in combination with nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and shoulder pain. These symptoms may be due to adnexal torsion, rupture of a partially cystic GCT, or hemorrhage either within the tumor or into the peritoneum.

• Prepubertal girls
  • Patients usually present with precocious pseudopuberty (70-80%) and have secondary sex characteristics at a very early age. These may include increased linear growth, breast enlargement, clitoral enlargement, pubic hair development, increased vaginal secretions, and vaginal bleeding.
  • In a few instances, patients present with virilizing symptoms as a result of testosterone production by the tumor cells. Many of these hormone-induced symptoms abate following resection of the tumor.
• Premenopausal women
  • Increasing abdominal girth and other symptoms related to an enlarging adnexal mass may be seen in this group of patients.
  • Menstrual irregularities such as oligomenorrhea, menorrhagia, and secondary amenorrhea tend to be the hallmark of these tumors in reproductive-aged women.
• Postmenopausal women
  • The most common endocrine manifestation of GCTs in postmenopausal women is abnormal uterine bleeding. This is caused by resumption of endometrial proliferation due to estrogen production by the tumor. For this reason, endometrial hyperplasia and/or endometrial adenocarcinoma may be a concomitant finding in women with GCT.
  • Patients also can have breast tenderness and increased vaginal secretions from estrogenic stimulation of the breast and vaginal tissues, respectively.
  • Rarely, a patient may present with virilizing symptoms such as acne, hirsutism, deepening of the voice, and clitoral enlargement. This is due to testosterone and/or androstenedione production in a minority of these tumors.

Physical

• Pelvic mass is the most consistent finding on pelvic and rectal examination in patients of all ages with GCT. A palpable mass can be found in 85-97% of patients. A bimanual examination and a rectovaginal examination should be performed to evaluate the pelvis and lower abdomen for masses, the posterior cul-de-sac for nodularity, and any other areas associated with tenderness. During the rectal examination, a stool sample should be obtained for guaiac testing, which can be helpful in narrowing the differential of GI disorders.
• For patients presenting with acute abdominal pain, a careful speculum examination should be performed to help rule out infectious etiologies. Wet preparation and cultures for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis should be considered. Gram stain for gram-negative diplococci can be helpful if other findings are consistent with a diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease and/or cervicitis.
• Other findings generally relate to endocrine manifestations of hyperestrogenic and/or hyperandrogenic states.

Causes

No definite etiologies for GCTs have been found. Proposed etiologies include chromosomal anomalies and/or autocrine and endocrine signaling abnormalities. A multifactorial etiology has been postulated.

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