eMedicine Specialties > Oncology > Carcinomas of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Gallbladder Cancer

Mary Denshaw-Burke, MD, FACP, Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University School of Medicine; Program Director of Hematology/Oncology Fellowship, Education Coordinator for Oncology, Lankenau Hospital; Consulting Staff, Lankenau Hospital, Delaware County Memorial Hospital, Mercy Fitzgerald Hospital, Bryn Mawr Hospital, Taylor Hospital
Jessica B Katz, MD, PhD, FACP, Hematology/Oncology Fellowship, Lankenau Hospital; Churchman Fellow, Lankenau Institute of Medical Research; Andrew Scott Kennedy, MD, Co-Medical Director, Wake Radiology Oncology; David Van Echo, MD, Head, New Drug Development Program (Oncology), Professor, Departments of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Maryland School of Medicine; Director of HarborView Cancer Center

Updated: Jun 12, 2008

Introduction

Background

Cancers of the biliary tract include cholangiocarcinoma (cancers arising from the bile duct epithelium), ampulla of Vater cancer, and gallbladder cancer. All subtypes of biliary tract cancers are rare and have an overall poor prognosis. They are also difficult to diagnose. These diseases are often discussed together and are mingled in therapeutic trials. However, this leads to significant confusion. Gallbladder cancer is the fifth most common GI cancer in the United States and the most common hepatobiliary cancer. According to 1992-2000 data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, gallbladder cancer accounts for 46% of the biliary tract cancers in the United States.¹  About 20% arise from the extrahepatic biliary tract and 20% arise from the ampulla of Vater.² Despite some similarities, gallbladder cancer is a distinct clinical entity and will be discussed exclusively in this article.

Pathophysiology

Gallbladder cancer arises in the setting of chronic inflammation. In the vast majority of patients (>75%), the source of this chronic inflammation is cholesterol gallstones. The presence of gallstones increases the risk of gallbladder cancer 4- to 5-fold.³ Other more unusual causes of chronic inflammation are also associated with gallbladder cancer. These causes include primary sclerosing cholangitis, ulcerative colitis,⁴ liver flukes, chronic Salmonella typhi and paratyphi infections,⁵ and Helicobacter infection.⁶

However, chronic gallbladder inflammation is likely only part of the cause of the malignant transformation seen in gallbladder cancer. Many other factors have been identified. Ingestion of certain medications (eg, oral contraceptives, INH, methyldopa) can increase the risk of gallbladder cancer. Likewise, certain chemical exposures (eg, pesticides, rubber, vinyl chloride) and occupational exposures associated with working in the textile, petroleum, paper mill, and shoemaking industries increase the risk of gallbladder cancer. In addition, exposures through water pollution (organopesticides, eg, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and benzene hexachloride); heavy metals (eg, cadmium, chromium, lead); and radiation exposure (eg, radon in miners) are associated with gallbladder cancer.  Obesity⁷ may contribute to gallbladder cancer through its association with gallstones, its association with increased endogenous estrogens, or through the ability of fat cells to secrete a large number of inflammatory mediators.² Related CME is available at Excess Body Weight Increases Risk for Many Cancers.

An increased incidence of gallbladder cancer also occurs in hereditary syndromes including Gardner syndrome, neurofibromatosis type I, and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer.² The role of various oncogenic mutations in gallbladder cancer is an area of active research. For example, a small study of gallbladder cancer from Japan reported an excess risk associated with polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 1A1 gene (CYP1A1), which encodes a protein involved in catalyzing the synthesis of cholesterol and other lipids.⁸  Another study looked at polymorphisms within the apolipoprotein B gene.⁹

Abnormal anatomy such as congenital defects with anomalous pancreaticobiliary duct junctions and choledochal cysts increase the risk of gallbladder cancer.^10,11  The tumor is usually located in the fundus of the gallbladder. Local spread through the gallbladder wall can lead to direct liver invasion, or, if in the opposite direction, leads to transperitoneal spread (20% of patients at presentation), with implants on the liver, on the bowel, and in the pelvis. Tumor may also directly invade other adjacent organs such as the stomach, duodenum, colon, pancreas, and extrahepatic bile duct. At diagnosis, the gallbladder is often replaced or destroyed by the cancer, and approximately 50% of patients have regional lymph node metastases.

See the Gallbladder and Biliary Disease Resource Center for more information about related conditions.

Frequency

United States

Approximately 9000 new cases of gallbladder cancer and other biliary cancers are predicted for 2008 according to the American Cancer Society. Gallbladder cancer incidence increases with age and is more common in women. According to the American Cancer Society 2008 statistic projections, the number of new cases of gallbladder and other biliary cancers in the United States in men is predicted to be 4500 and in women is predicted to be 5020.¹²

The number of deaths projected for 2008 in the United States according to the American Cancer Society is 1250 and 2090 for men and women, respectively. The total number of gallbladder and other biliary tract cancers for 2008 is 3340.¹²

In the United States, incidence varies substantially with racial and ethnic group and sex. Gallbladder cancer rates are the highest among American Indians/Alaska Natives and among white Hispanic peoples.  Within both groups, incidence of gallbladder cancer is significantly higher in women.²  The white Hispanic female incidence rate is 4.2 per 100,000 person-years. The American Indian/Alaskan Native female incidence rate is 4.1 per 100,000 person-years. The corresponding male rates are 1.4 and 3,3 per 100,000 person-years, respectively. The lowest incidence rate for gallbladder cancer is among non-Hispanic white males and is 0.7 per 100,000 person-years.

The incidence of gallbladder cancer rises with age. Seventy-five percent of patients with gallbladder cancer are older than 64 years.¹² In non-Hispanic whites and blacks, the rate of gallbladder cancer rises more slowly than among Hispanic whites and American Indian/Alaskan Natives. The rates for gallbladder cancer are higher among women than men in all age groups.²

Overall, the incidence (cases per year) has dropped by more than 50% in the general population since 1973. In Native American women, the incidence has decreased by 70%.¹²

International

Considerable variation exists in the incidence of gallbladder cancer throughout the world. Areas with the highest incidence rates include India, Korea, Japan, CzechRepublic, Slovakia, Spain, Columbia, Chile, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. The high incidence rates reported in Peru and Chile are thought to reflect the Hispanic populations with Indian heritage. Females from India have the highest international rate of gallbladder cancer at between 8.8 per 100,000 person-years and 21.2 per 100,000 person-years.^2,5 The United Kingdom, Denmark, and Norway have the lowest international incidence rates. Gallbladder cancer is the most common cancer affecting women in Chile. 

Mortality/Morbidity

Survival is correlated with staging based on the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) tumor, node, metastases (TNM) staging system.¹³  Most patients have regional disease or distant metastases at presentation. Therefore, the prognosis in gallbladder disease is poor, with 5-year survival rates of 15-20%.²

Patients with stage IA disease (T1N0M0) should be cured with a simple cholecystectomy. In selected surgical series, patients with stage IB (T2N0M0) disease treated with extended cholecystectomy have a 5-year survival rate of 70-90%, and patients with stage IIB (T1-3N1M0) treated with extended cholecystectomy have a 5-year survival of 45-60%. Stage III (T4, any N, M0) gallbladder cancer is generally not surgically curable. The 1-year survival rate for advanced gallbladder cancer is less than 5%. The median survival is 2-4 months.

The SEER registry from 1995-2001 shows 5-year survival rates for localized gallbladder cancer of approximately 40%. The 5-year survival rate for regional disease is listed at approximately 15%, and the 5-year survival rate for distant metastatic disease is reported at less than 10%.¹  However, survival data are variable from institution to institution for each stage. 

Unfortunately, only about 10-20% of patients present with tumor confined to the gallbladder wall. At diagnosis, 40-60% of patients have lesions that perforate the gallbladder wall and invade adjacent organs (T3) and 45% of patients have regional lymph node involvement (N1). Approximately 30% of patients present with metastatic disease.

Race

The highest rates of gallbladder cancer in the US are found in the US Native American and Hispanic, especially Mexican, populations.

Sex

A substantial female predominance exists worldwide, with female-to-male ratios of approximately 2.5:1 to 3:1.

Age

Gallbladder cancer is most typically diagnosed in the seventh decade of life, with a median age of 62-66 years.

Clinical

History

The symptoms of gallbladder cancer overlap with the symptoms of gallstones and biliary colic. Abdominal pain may be of a more diffuse and persistent nature than the classic right upper quadrant pain of gallstone disease. Jaundice, anorexia, and weight loss often indicate more advanced disease.

Physical

• Jaundice
• Palpable mass in the right upper quadrant (Courvoisier sign, if this is due to a palpable gallbladder)
• Periumbilical lymphadenopathy (Sister Mary Joseph nodes)
• Left supraclavicular adenopathy (Virchow node)
• Pelvic seeding: Mass is palpated on digital rectal examination (Blumer shelf).

Causes

See Pathophysiology. Associated conditions include the following:

• Chronic gallstones
• Calcification of the gallbladder (porcelain gallbladder) - 10-25% incidence of gallbladder cancer
• Crohn ileocolitis
• Ulcerative colitis
• Occupational chemical exposure
• Estrogens
• Typhoid carriers
• Anomalous pancreatobiliary duct junction
• Gallbladder polyps

Differential Diagnoses

Workup

Laboratory Studies

• Tumor marker CA 19-9
  • CA 19-9 may be significantly elevated in both cholangiocarcinoma and gallbladder cancer.
  • CA 19-9 tests may be helpful in the appropriate situation if the clinical suspicion for gallbladder cancer is high.
  • CA 19-9 can be useful in conjunction with CEA.
• Liver function tests: Elevated alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin levels are often found with more advanced disease.
• BUN, creatinine, urinalysis: Assess renal function prior to performing an enhanced CT scan.
• CBC: Anemia may be an indicator of more advanced disease.

Imaging Studies

• Ultrasonography (US) is a standard initial study in patients with right upper quadrant pain. A mass can be identified in 50-75% of patients with gallbladder cancer. It also can delineate metastatic lesions in the liver.
• Computed tomography (CT) scans also may be useful in patients with upper abdominal pain and can demonstrate tumor invasion outside of the gallbladder and identify metastatic disease elsewhere in the abdomen or pelvis. Liver invasion occurs in 60% of cases, and the combination of CT scan and US provides accurate details of disease extension.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been useful in examining this region for disease extension into other tissues or metastatic disease in the liver. It can provide details of the vasculature for preoperative planning via magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) and bile duct passages via magnetic resonance cholangiogram (MRCP).
• Cholangiography, via a percutaneous route, or endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERCP) may establish the diagnosis of gallbladder cancer by bile cytology.
• Endoscopic ultrasonography can be useful to assess regional lymphadenopathy and depth of tumor invasion into the wall of the gallbladder. In conjunction with other studies, it also can provide a means of obtaining bile for cytologic analysis, which has a sensitivity of 73% for the diagnosis of gallbladder cancer.¹⁴
• Angiography may be used to confirm encasement of the portal vein or hepatic artery and may assist in preoperative planning for definitive resection.
• A routine chest radiograph should also be obtained.

Procedures

• ERCP can demonstrate the site of the obstruction by direct retrograde dye injection, as well as exclude ampullary pathology by endoscopic evaluation. Brush cytology, biopsy, needle aspiration, and shave biopsies via ERCP can provide material for histology. Palliative stenting to relieve biliary obstruction can be performed at the time of the evaluation.
• Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) may allow access to the proximal biliary tree that has become obstructed by extensive tumor growth from the gallbladder. Material for cytology can be obtained and drainage performed as well.
• Other methods to obtain tissue include CT or ultrasound needle aspiration if a mass lesion is present and endoscopic ultrasonographic (EUS) fine-needle aspiration.

Histologic Findings

Adenocarcinoma is the primary histologic finding in 80-85% of gallbladder carcinomas, with several histologic subtypes, including papillary, nodular, and infiltrative. The papillary type appears to be less aggressive and more often localized and has a better prognosis than the other forms. Additional rare histologic types of gallbladder cancer exist. These include squamous cell cancer, sarcomas, carcinoid, lymphoma, and melanoma.

Grade is also important, with poorly differentiated tumors associated with a poorer prognosis than the typically less infiltrative, better differentiated tumors with metaplasia.

Staging

Staging of tumor extent is essential in selection of the appropriate treatment approach.

The AJCC 6th edition guidelines follow the TNM system, with depth of tumor penetration and regional spread defined pathologically.¹³ Survival is correlated directly with stage of disease.

Primary tumor

• Category T
  • TX - Primary tumor cannot be assessed
  • T0 - No evidence of primary tumor
  • Tis - Carcinoma in situ
  • T1 - Tumor invades lamina propria or muscle layer
    • T1a - Tumor invades lamina propria
    • T1b - Tumor invades muscle layer
  • T2 - Tumor invades perimuscular connective tissue; no extension beyond serosa or into liver
  • T3 - Tumor perforates the serosa (visceral peritoneum) and/or directly invades the liver and/or one other adjacent organ or structure, such as the stomach, duodenum, colon, pancreas, omentum, or extrahepatic bile ducts
  • T4 - Tumor invades main portal vein or hepatic artery or invades multiple extrahepatic organs or structures
  • Regional lymph node
• Category N
  • NX - Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
  • N0 - No metastases in regional lymph nodes
  • N1 - Metastases in regional lymph nodes
  • Distant metastases
• Category M
  • MX - Presence of metastases cannot be assessed
  • M0 - No distant metastases
  • M1 - Distant metastases
• TNM groupings by stage
  • Stage 0- Tis N0 M0
  • Stage IA - T1 N0 M0
  • Stage IB - T2 N0 M0
  • Stage IIA - T3 N0 M0
  • Stage IIB - T1-3 N1 M0
  • Stage III - T4 any N M0
  • Stage IV - Any T any N M1

Treatment

Medical Care

Although complete surgical resection is the only therapy to afford a chance of cure, en bloc resections of the gallbladder and portal lymph nodes carry a high morbidity and mortality (similar to bile duct carcinoma). Adequate surgical margins may be difficult to achieve. The role of adjuvant radiation therapy is to control microscopic residual deposits of carcinoma in the tumor bed and regional lymph nodes. The rationale for radiation therapy with or without concurrent chemotherapy in patients with unresectable disease is to provide palliation of symptoms. Rarely, it may increase survival.

• The role of radiotherapy for carcinoma of the gallbladder is unclear because the available literature is derived from small, single institutional experiences over many years, with a variety of treatment methods used. Complicating this is the fact that only approximately 25% of patients with carcinoma of the gallbladder can undergo curative surgery.
• Even large institutions do not accrue more than single-digit numbers of patients per year, and many are not on protocol. Available reports contain small numbers of patients with incomplete reporting of technical treatment data, histological grading, and tumor extent. The literature is strongly biased by patient selection, and interpretation of the reports is difficult. Given these difficulties, the data support the following statements:    
  • Radiotherapy has been delivered in a variety of situations, including after curative resections with close or positive microscopic margins, gross macroscopic residual disease, and palliative debulking with bypass.
  • Significant increases in survival rates have been reported after curative surgery is attempted and only microscopic residual disease remains. Survival in these patients after surgery alone ranges from 6-7 months and can be prolonged to longer than 12 months with external beam radiotherapy administered as adjuvant therapy. This excludes patients with T1 or stage I disease confined to the mucosa of the gallbladder. Their survival rates are extremely high and they are at very low risk for lymph node metastases.
  • All patients with tumors beyond the mucosa are candidates for external beam radiotherapy. Patients with curative resection and AJCC stages T2-T4 who have had complete resection who receive radiation have a mean survival of over 16 months. This is compared to less than 6 months mean survival with surgery alone. 
•  5-FU–based chemotherapy is usually given in conjunction with concurrent radiation therapy both in the adjuvant and palliative setting. No evidence-based clinical study exists to demonstrate the benefit of any form of adjuvant therapy in gallbladder cancer. Wherever possible, patients eligible for adjuvant therapy should be entered on a clinical trial. Gemcitabine by itself is an effective agent in the treatment of patients with unresectable recurrent or metastatic disease. The combination of gemcitabine and cisplatin¹⁵ or the combination of gemcitabine and capecitabine may be more effective than gemcitabine alone. This information is based on phase II clinical studies; because of the low numbers of patients with gallbladder cancer, there have been no definitive phase-III clinical trials to direct therapy for patients with this malignancy. 

Patients with a good performance status should be considered for a clinical trial or with the regimens described in this section. Patients with a poor performance status may be best treated with supportive care.

Surgical Care

Complete surgical resection is the only therapy to offer a chance of cure in this disease. Unfortunately, only a minority of patients present with early-stage disease and are, therefore, considered for curative resection.

• Because of the high incidence of gallbladder cancer in a calcified (porcelain) gallbladder, patients with this finding should be strongly considered for an open cholecystectomy even if they are asymptomatic. It is best to avoid a laparoscopic cholecystectomy in this setting to avoid the risk of peritoneal seeding if, indeed, gallbladder cancer is present.
• Gallbladder cancer is sometimes an incidental pathology finding after a cholecystectomy is performed for reasons other than cancer. If the tumor is carcinoma in situ (Tis) or only invades the lamina propria (T1a) and the margins of resection are negative, then postoperative observation alone is acceptable. If the tumor is T1b or greater or the margins of resection are positive, then further surgical resection is necessary if no metastatic disease is present on evaluation (CT, MRI, chest radiograph). This additional surgery should include partial hepatic resection and regional lymphadenectomy (porta hepatis, gastrohepatic ligament, and retroduodenal lymph nodes). A bile duct resection may also be necessary depending on tumor size and location. If the original surgery was performed via a laparoscopic approach, then the port sites should also be resected to avoid tumor seeding.
• Patients who present with a gallbladder mass or jaundice are evaluated preoperatively for resectability as previously described. If the tumor is resectable, the patient undergoes a cholecystectomy with en bloc liver resection and regional lymphadenectomy. Bile duct excision may also be necessary (especially if jaundice is present). The operative morbidity and mortality rate increases with the complexity of the operative procedure.
• The surgical role in treatment of unresectable disease is usually limited to biopsy of the tumor for diagnosis and possible biliary decompression procedures.

Consultations

A radiation oncologist and medical oncologist should be part of the multidisciplinary team participating in the treatment of patients with gallbladder cancer.

Medication

Historically, chemotherapy has not shown significant activity in gallbladder carcinoma. Typically, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) has been used with response rates of 10-24% in advanced disease. Often 5-FU is administered either as a bolus or as a prolonged infusion regimen with radiation. Capecitabine is a currently available oral alternative to a prolonged 5-FU infusion.

More recently, gemcitabine has shown activity in gallbladder cancer. Early phase studies show an increased response rate with gemcitabine combination therapy over historical treatment response rates with 5-FU alone. Gemcitabine has been studied in combination with cis-platinum and capecitabine.

Currently, no clearly defined standard exists for chemotherapy in gallbladder cancer. Patients should be encouraged to participate in clinical trials.

Antineoplastic agents

These agents inhibit cell growth and proliferation.

Gemcitabine (Gemzar)

Cytidine analog, after intracellular metabolism to active nucleotide, inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and competes with deoxycytidine triphosphate for incorporation into DNA. Cell cycle-specific for S phase.
This drug has been shown to have activity in a phase-2 trial against relapsed germ cell tumors.

Dosing

Adult

1000 mg/m² once weekly for as long as 7 wk or until toxic effects not tolerated; follow with 1 wk rest and subsequent cycles of once weekly infusion for 3 consecutive wk q4wk

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

None reported

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

May cause myelosuppression (particularly thrombocytopenia); toxicities include flulike syndrome, LFT abnormality, maculopapular rash, pruritus, nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, hematuria, proteinuria, and hemolytic uremic syndrome; clearance reduced in women and elderly individuals

Cisplatin (Platinol)

Platinum-containing compound that exerts antineoplastic effect by covalently binding to DNA with preferential binding to N-7 position of guanine and adenosine. Can react with 2 different sites on DNA to cause cross-links. Platinum complex also can bind to nucleus and cytoplasmic protein. A bifunctional alkylating agent, once activated to aquated form in cell, binds to DNA, resulting in interstrand and intrastrand cross-linking and denaturation of double helix.
Modify dose on basis of CrCl. Avoid use if CrCl <60 mL/min.

Dosing

Adult

20 mg/m²/d IV over 20-60 min for 5 d; repeat q21d for 4 cycles

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

Increases toxicity of bleomycin and ethacrynic acid

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity, pre-existing renal insufficiency, myelosuppression, and hearing impairment

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Administer adequate hydration before and 24 h after cisplatin dosing to reduce risk of nephrotoxicity; myelosuppression, ototoxicity, nausea and vomiting, may occur

Capecitabine (Xeloda)

Prodrug of fluorouracil that undergoes hydrolysis in liver and tissues to form the active moiety (fluorouracil), inhibiting thymidylate synthetase, which in turn blocks methylation of deoxyuridylic acid to thymidylic acid. This step interferes with DNA, and to a lesser degree with RNA synthesis.

Dosing

Adult

1250 mg/m² PO q12h pc for 2 wk followed by 1 wk of rest period; administer as 3 wk cycle

Pediatric

Not established

Interactions

Aluminum/magnesium hydroxide antacids or meals increase drug absorption; increased risk of bleeding with anticoagulants (monitor INR and PT frequently), NSAIDs, platelet inhibitors, thrombolytic agents; enhanced bone marrow toxicity with other immunosuppressive agents; coadministration with leucovorin may cause diarrhea, dehydration, and death from severe enterocolitis; may increase phenytoin levels

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity to drug or related products; severe renal impairment (CrCl <30 mL/min); dihydropyrimidine dihydrogenase (DPD) deficiency

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Adjust dose in moderate renal impairment (CrCl 30-50 mL/min); discontinue drug if intractable diarrhea, bone marrow suppression, myocardial ischemia, or stomatitis develop; caution in patients that have received extensive pelvic radiation or alkylating therapy; hand and foot syndrome characterized by numbness, dysesthesia/paresthesia, tingling, erythema, blistering, severe pain, desquamation, and painless or painful swelling may occur

Follow-up

Further Outpatient Care

• Because survival is usually very short in patients with advanced disease, close follow-up is essential to preserve the best quality of life. For patients with earlier stage disease who are treated with surgery and postoperative radiation therapy and chemotherapy, intermittent posttreatment imaging studies can be considered (particularly in the first few years).
• Hospice referral is important early in the disease course for patients with metastatic disease because their survival is typically 6 months or less.

Deterrence/Prevention

• Because a calcified (porcelain) gallbladder has up to a 25% incidence of associated gallbladder cancer, this is an indication for a cholecystectomy even in an asymptomatic patient.
• A small percentage (<10%) of patients with gallbladder polyps are found to have underlying gallbladder cancer. The risk increases with age and the size of the polyp. A cholecystectomy should be considered if a gallbladder polyp greater than 1 cm in size is found in a patient older than 50 years.

Prognosis

Survival at 5 years is correlated with stage of disease at presentation. Only 10-20% of patients present with localized disease. The remainder present with regional or distant spread. According to the SEER registry on gallbladder cancer, the 5-year survival rates for localized, regional, and distant disease are approximately 40%, 15%, and less than 10%, respectively. The median survival for advanced disease is short (2-4 mo).

Miscellaneous

Medicolegal Pitfalls

• Although pathologic review of all specimens removed from a patient is standard practice, careful examination of the gallbladder is indicated to rule out carcinoma in high-risk populations (calcified gallbladder, gallbladder polyps).
• If laparoscopic or simple open cholecystectomy has been performed and cancer is discovered after the fact, additional surgery or adjuvant chemoradiation should be considered.

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Keywords

biliary cancer, biliary tract cancer, cancer of the biliary tree, gallbladder cancer, gallstones, cholesterol gallstones, chronic typhoid infections, abnormal pancreaticobiliary duct junctions, inflammatory bowel disease, IBD, polyposis coli, cholangiocarcinomas, primary sclerosing cholangitis, ulcerative colitis, liver flukes, chronic Salmonella typhi and paratyphi infections, and Helicobacter infection, Gardner syndrome, neurofibromatosis type I, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer, obesity, oral contraceptives, INH, isoniazid, methyldopa, chemical exposures, pesticides, rubber, vinyl chloride, occupational exposures, textile worker, petroleum worker, paper mill worker, shoemaker, water pollution, organopesticides, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, benzene hexachloride, heavy metals, cadmium, chromium, lead, radiation exposure, radon in miners, apolipoprotein B gene, cytochrome P450 1A1 gene, CYP1A1, abdominal pain

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Mary Denshaw-Burke, MD, FACP, Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University School of Medicine; Program Director of Hematology/Oncology Fellowship, Education Coordinator for Oncology, Lankenau Hospital; Consulting Staff, Lankenau Hospital, Delaware County Memorial Hospital, Mercy Fitzgerald Hospital, Bryn Mawr Hospital, Taylor Hospital
Mary Denshaw-Burke, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians
Disclosure: Sharpe-Strumia Fund at Bryn Mawr  Grant/research funds Other

Coauthor(s)

Jessica B Katz, MD, PhD, FACP, Hematology/Oncology Fellowship, Lankenau Hospital; Churchman Fellow, Lankenau Institute of Medical Research
Jessica B Katz, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Andrew Scott Kennedy, MD, Co-Medical Director, Wake Radiology Oncology
Andrew Scott Kennedy, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Cancer Research, American Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology, American Society of Clinical Oncology, and Radiological Society of North America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David Van Echo, MD, Head, New Drug Development Program (Oncology), Professor, Departments of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Maryland School of Medicine; Director of HarborView Cancer Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Michael Perry, MD, MS, MACP, Nellie B Smith Chair of Oncology, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Missouri at Columbia/Ellis Fischel Cancer Center
Michael Perry, MD, MS, MACP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Cancer Research, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Medical Association, American Society of Hematology, Missouri State Medical Association, Southern Association for Oncology, and Southern Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Managing Editor

Benjamin Movsas, MD, Vice-Chairman, Department of Radiation Oncology, Fox Chase Cancer Center
Benjamin Movsas, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Radiology, American Radium Society, and American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Rajalaxmi McKenna, MD, FACP, Consulting Staff, Department of Medicine, Southwest Medical Consultants, SC, Good Samaritan Hospital, Advocate Health Systems
Rajalaxmi McKenna, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Hematology and International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Jules E Harris, MD, Clinical Professor of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine at Tucson; Consulting Staff, Arizona Cancer Center
Jules E Harris, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association of Immunologists, American Society of Hematology, and Central Society for Clinical Research
Disclosure: GlobeImmune Salary Consulting; Amplimed Consulting fee Consulting

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