eMedicine Specialties > Oncology > Carcinomas of the Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Glioblastoma Multiforme: Treatment & Medication
Updated: Nov 5, 2009
- Overview
- Differential Diagnoses & Workup
- Treatment & Medication
- Follow-up
- Multimedia
Treatment
Medical Care
The treatment of glioblastomas remains difficult in that no contemporary treatments are curative. While overall mortality rates remain high, recent work leading to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms and gene mutations combined with clinical trials are leading to more promising and tailored therapeutic approaches. Multiple challenges remain, including tumor heterogeneity, tumor location in a region where it is beyond the reach of local control, and rapid, aggressive tumor relapse. Therefore, the treatment of patients with malignant gliomas still remains palliative and encompasses surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy.
Upon initial diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), standard treatment consists of maximal surgical resection, radiotherapy, and concomitant and adjuvant chemotherapy with temozolomide.12,14 For patients older than 70 years, less aggressive therapy is sometimes employed, using radiation or temozolomide alone.45,46,47
Median time to recurrence after standard therapy is 6.9 months.49 For recurrent glioblastoma multiforme, surgery is appropriate in selected patients, and various radiotherapeutic, chemotherapeutic, biologic, or experimental therapies are also employed.50,51
- Radiation therapy52,53,54,55
- Radiation therapy in addition to surgery or surgery combined with chemotherapy has been shown to prolong survival in patients with glioblastoma multiformes compared to surgery alone. The addition of radiotherapy to surgery has been shown to increase survival from 3-4 months to 7-12 months.49,56
- Dose response relationships for glioblastomas demonstrate that a radiation dose of less than 4500 cGy results in a median survival of 13 weeks compared with a median survival of 42 weeks with a dose of 6000 cGy. This is usually administered 5 days per week in doses of 1.8-2.0 Gy.
- The responsiveness of glioblastoma multiformes to radiotherapy varies. In many instances, radiotherapy can induce a phase of remission, often marked with stability or regression of neurologic deficits as well as diminution in the size of the contrast-enhancing mass. Unfortunately, any period of response is short-lived because the tumor typically recurs within 1 year, resulting in further clinical deterioration and the appearance of an expansile region of contrast enhancement.57,58
- Two studies investigated tumor recurrence after whole-brain radiation therapy and found that the tumor recurred within 2 cm of the original site in 90% and 78% of patients, supporting the use of focal radiation therapy. Multifocal recurrence occurred in 6% of patients in one study and in 5% of patients in a second trial.
- Interstitial brachytherapy is of limited use and is rarely used. By implantation of radioactive seeds, a large dose of radiation is delivered to the tumor volume, with rapid fall-off of radiation in surrounding tissue. The tumor must be unilateral and smaller than 5 cm in diameter. In one study, patients treated with interstitial brachytherapy had a significantly better median survival (2 mo) compared with the conventional focal external beam radiation therapy. Following interstitial brachytherapy, up to 40% of patients require another surgery for removal of tissue damaged by radiation necrosis.
- Experimental studies are underway in which focal radiation is delivered directly to tumors through an implanted balloon containing interstitial radiation. MRI and MR spectroscopy can be used to monitor therapy. Clinical outcomes from these studies are not yet available.
- Radiosensitizers, such as newer chemotherapeutic agents,59 targeted molecular agents,60,61 and antiangiogenic agents61 may increase the therapeutic effect of radiotherapy.62
- Radiotherapy for recurrent glioblastoma multiforme is controversial, though some studies have suggested a benefit to stereotactic radiosurgery or fractionated stereotactic reirradiation.63,64,65
- Chemotherapy – Antineoplastic agents66,67,68,69,70,71
- Although the optimal chemotherapeutic regimen for glioblastoma is not defined at present, several studies have suggested that more than 25% of patients obtain a significant survival benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy. Meta-analyses have suggested that adjuvant chemotherapy results in a 6-10% increase in 1-year survival rate.72,73
- Temozolomide is an orally active alkylating agent that is used for persons newly diagnosed with glioblastoma multiforme. It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in March 2005. Studies have shown that the drug was well tolerated and provided a survival benefit. Adjuvant and concomitant temozolomide with radiation was associated with significant improvements in median progression-free survival over radiation alone (6.9 vs 5 mo), overall survival (14.6 vs 12.1 mo), and the likelihood of being alive in 2 years (26% vs 10%).
- Nitrosoureas: BCNU (carmustine)-polymer wafers (Gliadel) were approved by the FDA in 2002. Though Gliadel wafers are used by some for initial treatment, they have shown only a modest increase in median survival over placebo (13.8 vs. 11.6 months) in the largest such phase III trial, and are associated with increased rates of CSF leak and increased intracranial pressure secondary to edema and mass effect.74
- MGMT is a DNA repair enzyme that contributes to temozolomide resistance. Methylation of the MGMT promoter, found in approximately 45% of glioblastoma multiformes, results in an epigenetic silencing of the gene, decreasing the tumor cell's capacity for DNA repair and increasing susceptibility to temozolomide.75
- When patients with and without MGMT promoter methylation were treated with temozolomide, the groups had median survivals of 21.7 versus 12.7 months, and 2-year survival rates of 46% versus 13.8%, respectively.
- Though temozolomide is currently a first-line agent in the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme, unfavorable MGMT methylation status could help select patients appropriate for future therapeutic investigations.76
- O6-benzylguanine and other inhibitors of MGMT as well as RNA interference-mediated silencing of MGMT offer promising avenues to increase the effectiveness of temozolomide and other alkylating antineoplastics, and such agents are under active study.76,77
- Carmustine (BCNU) and cis -platinum (cisplatin) have been the primary chemotherapeutic agents used against malignant gliomas. All agents in use have no greater than a 30-40% response rate, and most fall into the range of 10-20%.
- Data from the University of California at San Francisco indicate that, for the treatment of glioblastomas, surgery followed by radiation therapy leads to 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates of 44%, 6%, and 0%, respectively. By comparison, surgery followed by radiation and chemotherapy using nitrosourea-based regimens resulted in 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates of 46%, 18%, and 18%, respectively.
- A major hindrance to the use of chemotherapeutic agents for brain tumors is the fact that the blood-brain barrier (BBB) effectively excludes many agents from the CNS. For this reason, novel methods of intracranial drug delivery are being developed to deliver higher concentrations of chemotherapeutic agents to the tumor cells while avoiding the adverse systemic effects of these medications.
- Pressure-driven infusion of chemotherapeutic agents through an intracranial catheter, also known as convection-enhanced delivery (CED), has the advantage of delivering drugs along a pressure gradient rather than by simple diffusion. CED has shown promising results in animal models with agents including BCNU and topotecan.78,79,80
- Initial attempts investigated the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents via an intraarterial route rather than intravenously. Unfortunately, no survival advantage was observed.
- Chemotherapy for recurrent glioblastoma multiforme provides modest, if any, benefit, and several classes of agents are used. Carmustine wafers increased 6-month survival from 36% to 56% over placebo in one randomized study of 222 patients, though there was a significant association between the treatment group and serious intracranial infections.81,82
- Genotyping of brain tumors may have applications in stratifying patients for clinical trials of various novel therapies.
- The anti-angiogenic agent bevacizumab was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for recurrent glioblastoma in May 2009.83 When used with irinotecan, bevacizumab improved 6-month survival in recurrent glioma patients to 46% compared with 21% in patients treated with temozolomide.84,85 This bevacizumab and irinotecan combination for recurrent glioblastoma multiforme has been shown to improve survival over bevacizumab alone.86 Anti-angiogenic agents also decrease peritumoral edema, potentially reducing the necessary corticosteroid dose.
- A small proportion of glioblastomas responds to gefitinib or erlotinib (tyrosine kinase inhibitors). The simultaneous presence in glioblastoma cells of mutant EGFR (EGFRviii) and PTEN was associated with responsiveness to tyrosine kinase inhibitors, whereas increased p-akt predicts a decreased effect.87,88,89 Other targets include PDGFR, VEGFR, mTOR, farnesyltransferase, and PI3K.
- Other therapy modalities under investigation include gene therapy, peptide and dendritic cell vaccines, synthetic chlorotoxins, and radiolabeled drugs and antibodies.90,91,92,93,94,95
Surgical Care
The extent of surgery (biopsy vs resection) has been shown in a number of studies to affect length of survival. In a study by Ammirati and colleagues (1987), patients with high-grade gliomas who had a gross total resection had a 2-year survival rate of 19%, while those with a subtotal resection had a 2-year survival rate of 0%.96
In another study of 416 patients, gross total resection, defined as >98% on MRI, conferred a survival advantage over subtotal resection (13 vs 8.8 mo).97
In another study of 92 patients, a total tumor resection without any residual disease resulted in a median survival of 93 weeks, whereas the smallest percent of resection (<25%) and greatest volume of residual tumor (>20 cm3) gradually shortened the survival to 31 weeks and 50 weeks, respectively.98
An analysis of 28 studies found a mean duration of survival advantage of total over subtotal resection for glioblastoma multiforme (14 vs 11 mo).99,100
Because these tumors cannot be cured with surgery, the surgical goals are to establish a pathological diagnosis, relieve mass effect, and, if possible, achieve a gross total resection to facilitate adjuvant therapy.101 Most glioblastomas recur in and around the original tumor bed, but contralateral and distant recurrences are not uncommon, especially with lesions near the corpus callosum. The indications for reoperation of malignant astrocytomas after initial treatment with surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy are not firmly established. Reoperation is generally considered in the face of a life-threatening recurrent mass, particularly if radionecrosis rather than recurrent tumor is suspected as the cause of clinical and radiographic deterioration. PET scans and MR spectroscopy have proven useful in discriminating between these 2 entities (see Images 1-8).
Axial CT scan without intravenous contrast. This image reveals a large right temporal intraaxial mass (glioblastoma multiforme [GBM]). Extensive surrounding edema is present, as demonstrated by the peritumoral hypodensity, and a moderate right-to-left midline shift can be noted. Images 2-8 are radiologic studies of the same patient.
A T1-weighted axial MRI without intravenous contrast. This image demonstrates a hemorrhagic multicentric tumor (glioblastoma multiforme [GBM]) in the right temporal lobe. Effacement of the ventricular system is present on the right, and mild impingement of the right medial temporal lobe can be observed on the midbrain.
A T1-weighted axial MRI with intravenous contrast. Heterogenous enhancement of the lesion is present within the right temporal lobe. The hypointensity circumscribed within the enhancement is suggestive of necrosis. This radiologic appearance is typical of a multicentric glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).
A T1-weighted coronal MRI with intravenous contrast. This image demonstrates the lesion (glioblastoma multiforme [GBM]) within the medial temporal lobe and the stereotypical pattern of contrast enhancement.
A T1-weighted sagittal MRI with intravenous contrast in a patient with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).
A T2-weighted axial MRI. The tumor (glioblastoma multiforme [GBM]) and surrounding white matter within the right temporal lobe show increased signal intensity compared to a healthy brain, suggesting extensive tumorigenic edema.
A fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) axial MRI. This image is similar to the T2-weighted image and demonstrates extensive edema in a patient with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).
Histopathologic slide demonstrating a glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).
Although no formal studies have been performed, observations indicate that variables, such as young age, prolonged interval between operations, and extent of the second surgical resection, have prognostic significance.102
Stereotactic biopsy followed by radiation therapy may be considered in certain circumstances. These include patients with a tumor located in an eloquent area of the brain, patients whose tumors have minimal mass effect, and patients in poor medical condition, precluding general anesthesia. Median survival after stereotactic biopsy and radiation therapy is reported to be from 27-47 weeks.103
Consultations
Patients with glioblastomas should be evaluated by a team of specialists, including a neurologist, neurosurgeon, neurooncologist, and radiation oncologist, in order to develop a coordinated treatment strategy.
Diet
No dietary restrictions are necessary.
Activity
No universal restrictions on activity are necessary for patients with glioblastomas. The patient's activity depends on his or her overall neurologic status. The presence of seizures may prevent the patient from driving. In many circumstances, physical therapy and/or rehabilitation are extremely beneficial. Activity is encouraged to reduce the risk of deep venous thrombosis.
Medication
No specific medications exist to treat glioblastomas. However, certain conditions require medical treatment. For seizures, the patient usually is started on levetiracetam (Keppra), phenytoin (Dilantin), or carbamazepine (Tegretol). Levetiracetam is often used because it lacks the effects on the P450 system seen with phenytoin and carbamazepine, which can interfere with antineoplastic therapy. Vasogenic cerebral edema is typically managed with corticosteroids (eg, dexamethasone), usually in combination with some form of antiulcer agent (eg, famotidine, ranitidine). The American Academy of Neurology's practice parameters state that prophylactic antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) should not be administered routinely to patients with newly diagnosed brain tumors (standard) and should be discontinued in the first postoperative week in patients who have not experienced a seizure.104
Antineoplastic agents
Although the optimal chemotherapeutic regimen for glioblastoma is not yet defined, several studies have suggested significant survival benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy.
Temozolomide (Temodar)
Oral alkylating agent converted to MTIC at physiologic pH; 100% bioavailable; approximately 35% crosses the blood-brain barrier. Indicated for glioblastoma multiforme combined with radiotherapy. Significant overall survival improvement was demonstrated in patients treated with temozolomide and radiation compared with radiotherapy alone.
Adult
Adjust dose according to nadir neutrophil and platelet counts from previous cycle and at time of initiating next cycle
Concomitant phase: 75 mg/m2/d PO for 42-49 d with concomitant radiotherapy
Maintenance cycle 1: 150 mg/m2/d PO for 5 d followed by 23 d without treatment; initiated 4 wk following concomitant phase completion
Maintenance cycles 2-6: 200 mg/m2/d PO for 5 d; escalate dose from phase 1 only if blood count stable
Pediatric
Not established
None reported
Documented hypersensitivity to temozolomide or DTIC, since each drug is metabolized to MTIC
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Causes bone marrow suppression resulting in thrombocytopenia, anemia, and leukopenia (check blood counts weekly during concomitant phase, then at day 1 and 21 of each cycle); common adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, and alopecia; not known if the drug is excreted in breast milk and because of potential serious adverse effects in infants, breastfeeding should be discontinued; PCP prophylaxis required during concomitant phase, continue if lymphocytopenia develops
Carmustine (BiCNU)
Alkylates and cross-links DNA strands, inhibiting cell proliferation.
Adult
100-200 mg/m2 intra-arterially
200 mg/m2 IV; not to exceed cumulative dose of 1500 mg
8 BCNU-loaded biodegradable wafers in the resection cavity
Pediatric
200-250 mg/m2 IV q4-6wk
Coadministration with cimetidine may increase toxicity; coadministration with etoposide may cause severe hepatic dysfunction (hyperbilirubinemia, ascites, and thrombocytopenia)
Documented hypersensitivity; myelosuppression from previous chemotherapy
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution in patients with depressed platelet, leukocyte, or erythrocyte counts or hepatic or renal impairment; perform baseline pulmonary function tests
Cisplatin (Platinol)
Inhibits DNA synthesis and, thus, cell proliferation by causing DNA crosslinks and denaturation of double helix.
Adult
Currently, cisplatin is not administered routinely in adults with GBM because of poor penetration into CNS
Pediatric
60 mg/m2 IV for 2 consecutive d q3-4wk
Increases toxicity of bleomycin and ethacrynic acid
Documented hypersensitivity; preexisting renal insufficiency; myelosuppression; hearing impairment
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Administer adequate hydration before and 24 h after cisplatin dosing to reduce risk of nephrotoxicity; myelosuppression, ototoxicity, and nausea and vomiting may occur
Erlotinib (Tarceva)
Pharmacologically classified as a human epidermal growth factor receptor type 1/epidermal growth factor receptor (HER1/EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor. EGFR is expressed on the cell surface of normal cells and cancer cells. Indicated for locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer after failure of at least one prior chemotherapy regimen.
Adult
150 mg PO qd administered at least 1 h before or 2 h after food; continue treatment until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity occurs
Pediatric
Not established
Predominantly metabolized by CYP3A4; potent CYP3A4 inhibitors may decrease clearance (eg, ketoconazole increased AUC by two-thirds), caution with other strong CYP3A4 inhibitors (eg, atazanavir, clarithromycin, indinavir, itraconazole, nefazodone, nelfinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, telithromycin, troleandomycin [TAO], voriconazole); CYP3A4 inducers may decrease AUC (ie, rifampin decreased AUC by two-thirds)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution with hepatic impairment; may cause interstitial lung disease (including fatalities), elevated INR and bleeding; instruct patient to immediately seek medical attention for severe or persistent diarrhea, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, onset or worsening of unexplained shortness of breath or cough, or eye irritation; commonly causes rash and diarrhea (diarrhea unresponsive to loperamide may require dose reduction or temporary therapy interruption)
Gefitinib (Iressa)
An anilinoquinazoline. Indicated as monotherapy to treat locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer after failure of both platinum-based and docetaxel chemotherapies. The mechanism is not fully understood. Inhibits tyrosine kinases intracellular phosphorylation associated with transmembrane cell surface receptors.
Adult
250 mg PO qd
Pediatric
Not established
CYP3A4 inducers (eg, rifampin, phenytoin) may increase clearance (increase dose to 500 mg PO qd); CYP3A4 inhibitors (eg, ketoconazole, itraconazole, clarithromycin) may increase gefitinib plasma levels (monitor for toxicity); coadministration with warfarin may increase INR or bleeding; coadministration with drugs causing sustained gastric pH elevation (eg, H2 inhibitors) may decrease plasma concentrations
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Frequently causes poorly tolerated diarrhea or adverse skin reactions (interrupt treatment briefly for up to 14 d, then reinstate therapy); discontinue for acute onset or worsening pulmonary symptoms (investigate for interstitial lung disease) or new eye symptoms (ie, pain, corneal erosion); may cause acne, dry skin, rash, pruritus, nausea, vomiting, anorexia; asthenia, or weight loss
Anticonvulsants
These agents are used to treat and prevent seizures.
Levetiracetam (Keppra)
Used as adjunct therapy for partial seizures and myoclonic seizures. Also indicated for primary generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Mechanism of action is unknown.
Adult
1000 mg/d PO divided bid (500 mg bid); may increase by 1000 mg/d increments q2wk; not to exceed 3000 mg/d; long-term experience at doses >3000 mg/d is relatively minimal, and there is no evidence that doses >3000 mg/d offer additional benefit
Pediatric
Partial onset seizures:
<4 years: Not established
4-15 years: 20 mg/kg/d PO divided bid; may increase by 20 mg/kg/d increments q2wk; not to exceed 60 mg/kg/d; use oral solution if weight <20 kg
>15 years: Administer as in adults
Myoclonic seizures:
<12 years: Not established
>12 years: Administer as in adults
Tonic-clonic seizures:
<6 years: Not established
6-15 years: 10 mg/kg PO bid; may increase daily dose by 20-mg/kg increments q2wk, not to exceed 30 mg/kg bid
>15 years: Administer as in adults
None reported; does not inhibit CYP450 isoenzymes, epoxide hydrolase, or UDP-glucuronidation; probenecid inhibits renal clearance of ucb L057 (inactive levetiracetam metabolite)
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution in renal impairment (reduce dose); major side effects include somnolence, asthenia, incoordination, mild leukopenia (3%) and behavioral changes such as anxiety, hostility, emotional lability, depression and psychosis (1-2%), and depersonalization; seizure frequency may increase following discontinuing drug (discontinue gradually); statistically significant decreases in RBCs and WBCs have been observed
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
Acts to block sodium channels and prevent repetitive firing of action potentials. As such, it is a very effective anticonvulsant. First-line agent in patients with partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures.
Adult
Loading dose: 15 mg/kg or 1000 mg IV over 4 h divided into 2 or 3 doses
Maintenance dose: 5 mg/kg/d or 300 mg PO/IV qd or divided tid; adjust dose based on serum levels
Pediatric
Administer as in adults
Amiodarone, benzodiazepines, chloramphenicol, cimetidine, fluconazole, isoniazid, metronidazole, miconazole, phenylbutazone, succinimide, sulfonamides, omeprazole, phenacemide, disulfiram, ethanol (acute ingestion), trimethoprim, and valproic acid may increase toxicity; effects may decrease when taken concurrently with barbiturates, diazoxide, ethanol (chronic ingestion), rifampin, antacids, charcoal, carbamazepine, theophylline, and sucralfate; may decrease effects of acetaminophen, corticosteroids, dicumarol, disopyramide, doxycycline, estrogens, haloperidol, amiodarone, carbamazepine, cardiac glycosides, quinidine, theophylline, methadone, metyrapone, mexiletine, oral contraceptives, and valproic acid
Documented hypersensitivity; sinoatrial block; second- and third-degree AV block; sinus bradycardia; Adams-Stokes syndrome
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Perform blood counts and urinalyses when therapy is begun and at monthly intervals for several months thereafter to monitor for blood dyscrasias; discontinue use if skin rash appears, and do not resume use if rash is exfoliative, bullous, or purpuric; rapid IV infusion may result in death from cardiac arrest, marked by QRS widening; caution in patients with acute intermittent porphyria and diabetes (may elevate blood sugars); discontinue use if hepatic dysfunction occurs; signs of toxicity include nystagmus, ataxia, and diplopia (necessitate lowering dose)
Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
Like phenytoin, acts by interacting with sodium channels and blocking repetitive neuronal firing. First-line agent in patients with partial and tonic-clonic seizures. Serum levels should be checked and should be approximately 4-8 mcg/mL.
Adult
200-600 mg PO tid/qid (bid with ER)
Pediatric
15-25 mg/kg/d PO divided tid/qid (bid with ER)
Serum levels may increase significantly within 30 d of danazol coadministration (avoid whenever possible); cimetidine may increase toxicity, especially if taken in first 4 wk of therapy; may decrease primidone and phenobarbital levels (coadministration may increase carbamazepine levels)
Documented hypersensitivity; history of bone marrow depression; administration of MAOIs within last 14 d
Pregnancy
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution with increased IOP; obtain CBCs and serum-iron baseline prior to treatment, during first 2 mo, and yearly or every other year thereafter; caution while driving or performing other tasks requiring alertness; signs of toxicity include diplopia, ataxia, GI distress, and drowsiness (serum levels should be checked)
Corticosteroids
These agents reduce edema around the tumor, frequently leading to symptomatic and objective improvement.
Dexamethasone (Decadron)
Postulated mechanisms of action in brain tumors include reduction in vascular permeability, cytotoxic effects on tumors, inhibition of tumor formation, and decreased CSF production.
Adult
16 mg/d PO/IV divided q6h, continue until patient shows improvement, taper as symptoms resolve
Pediatric
0.5 mg/kg/d PO/IV divided q6h
Effects decrease with coadministration of barbiturates, phenytoin, and rifampin; decreases effect of salicylates and vaccines used for immunization
Documented hypersensitivity; active bacterial or fungal infection
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Increases risk of multiple complications, including severe infections; monitor for adrenal insufficiency when tapering drug because abrupt discontinuation of glucocorticoids may cause adrenal crisis; hyperglycemia, edema, osteonecrosis, myopathy, peptic ulcer disease, hypokalemia, osteoporosis, euphoria, psychosis, myasthenia gravis, growth suppression, and infections are possible complications of glucocorticoid use
More on Glioblastoma Multiforme |
| Overview: Glioblastoma Multiforme |
| Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Glioblastoma Multiforme |
 Treatment & Medication: Glioblastoma Multiforme |
| Follow-up: Glioblastoma Multiforme |
| Multimedia: Glioblastoma Multiforme |
| References |
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Further Reading
Keywords
glioblastoma multiforme, GBM, brain cancer, brain malignancy, glioblastoma, WHO grade IV glioma, Kernohan grade IV astrocytoma, St. Anne/Mayo astrocytoma grade 4, p53, EGFR, MDM2, PDGF, PTEN, brain tumors, primary brain tumors, glial tumors, lower-grade astrocytomas, anaplastic astrocytomas, primary GBMs, secondary GBMs, astrocytic brain tumors, butterfly glioma, intracranial neoplasms, progressive neurologic deficit, motor weakness, seizures, supratentorial brain tumors, neurofibromatosis
