Bulimia Nervosa Treatment & Management

  • Author: Christine I Osterhout, MD; Chief Editor: David Bienenfeld, MD   more...
 
Updated: Nov 15, 2011
 

Medical Care

Triage of care

Initial care for bulimia nervosa is usually provided in outpatient settings. Factors that may indicate a need for inpatient care include significant metabolic abnormalities, medical complications, risk of suicide, failed outpatient treatment, and inability to care for self. For guidelines regarding patient level of care, refer to the table from the APA Practice Guidelines for Eating Disorders.[57]

Interdisciplinary approach

Bulimia nervosa is best managed using an interdisciplinary approach. Care providers who should be involved include the primary care provider, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and nutritionist/dietitian. If the psychiatrist is not skilled in this area, involvement of a psychotherapist with expertise in the management of eating disorders is strongly recommended. Dietary review and nutritional rehabilitation counseling should be provided by a nutritionist/registered dietitian. Dental care merits attention. Depending on complications, those with bulimia nervosa may also require the services of other specialists. The goals of treatment are as follows:[58]

  • Reduce and, where possible, eliminate binge eating and purging.
  • Treat physical complications and restore nutritional health.
  • Enhance patients' motivation to cooperate in the restoration of healthy eating patterns and participate in treatment.
  • Provide education regarding healthy nutrition and eating patterns.
  • Help patients reassess and change core dysfunctional thoughts, attitudes, motives, conflicts, and feelings related to bulimia nervosa.
  • Treat associated psychiatric conditions and psychological difficulties, including deficits in mood and impulse regulation, and factors contributing to poor self-esteem.
  • Enlist family support and provide family counseling and therapy where appropriate.
  • Prevent relapse.
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Nonpharmacologic Interventions

Treatment should be comprehensive and generally requires an interdisciplinary approach with many of the following components:[57]

Core nonpharmacologic interventions

Individual therapies

Cognitive behavioral psychotherapy (CBT): CBT is an evidence-based, effective treatment for bulimia nervosa. Behavioral approaches to avoiding undesirable eating habits are used, including diary keeping; behavioral analyses of the antecedents, behaviors, and consequences (so-called ABCs) associated with binge eating and purging episodes; and exposure to food paired with progressive response prevention regarding binge eating and purging. Distorted or maladaptive thoughts regarding weight and shape are identified, examined, and addressed, and other dysfunctional irrational beliefs are explored and confronted to allow better understanding, enhanced self-control, and improved body image. The cognitive component of CBT appears to be an essential active ingredient for change, as behavioral interventions alone are often not as effective.[58]

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT): Interpersonal psychotherapy addresses specific issues in the interpersonal arena that create the context for and stimulate dynamic tensions that spur the patient's symptoms; these generally encompass such processes as grief, role transitions, role conflicts or disputes, and interpersonal deficits. Brief focused therapy in these areas can be effective in producing improvements in mood disturbance and low self-esteem, which may trigger and maintain the symptoms of bulimia nervosa. The efficacy of IPT is roughly similar to CBT in reducing binge eating but it may be somewhat less effective in curbing purging.

Nutritional rehabilitation counseling

A structured meal plan provides a concrete means to help reduce episodes of dietary restriction and, consequently, urges to binge and purge. Adequate nutritional intake can prevent craving and promote satiety. Assessing nutritional intake for all patients, even those with a normal body weight (and normal BMI), is important because normal weight per se does not ensure appropriate nutritional intake or normal body composition. Nutritional counseling may not only help reduce food restriction, but may also help patients increase the variety of foods eaten and promote healthy but not compulsive exercise patterns.

Family therapy

Family therapy explores family attitudes and dynamics, dysfunctional relationships, communication and behavior patterns, and other factors that may precipitate or perpetuate abnormal eating behaviors in the family setting. This perspective often views eating difficulties as a form of communication within a family. Family therapy should be considered especially for adolescent patients still living with their parents or older patients with ongoing conflicted interactions with parents. A specific form of family intervention, the so-called Maudsley model, where parents are authorized to take an active and specified role in helping their child to eat, has been shown to be effective for treating anorexia nervosa in adolescents. Its efficacy for patients with bulimia nervosa is still uncertain.

Adjunctive nonpharmacologic treatments

Individual therapy

Psychodynamic psychotherapy: Some patients, particularly those with concurrent developmental and personality pathology or other co-occurring disorders, require lengthy individual treatment. Clinical reports suggest that psychodynamic and at times psychoanalytic approaches in individual or group format may help to improve overall coping once bingeing and purging improve. Supportive-expressive psychotherapy (SEP) in individual or group therapy formats may be helpful for patients with bulimia.

Couples therapy

Patients with marital discord may benefit from couples therapy. Although research concerning marital and cohabitation relationships in patients with bulimia nervosa is limited, many patients with bulimia nervosa are thought to experience problematic relationships with impaired intimacy, including sexuality and suboptimal communication skills. Self-consciousness and self-silencing associated with sexual activity, and anxious attachment may be associated with bulimic symptoms.[59]

Group therapy

Dialectical behavior therapy and integrative cognitive-affective therapy may have an emerging role in treatment, especially for patients with severe emotional dysregulation and impulsivity.[60]

Self-help and support groups

Support groups and 12-step programs such as Overeaters Anonymous may be helpful as adjuncts in initial treatment and for subsequent relapse prevention, but they are not recommended as the sole initial treatment approach for bulimia nervosa. In the most recent update of the Self-help and guided self-help for eating disorders in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews[61] , efficacies of pure self-help (PSH) and guided self-help (GSH) were mixed. PSH/GSH did not significantly differ from waiting list in abstinence from bingeing or purging, although PSH/GSH produced greater improvement on other eating disorder symptoms, psychiatric symptomatology, and interpersonal functioning, but not depression. In addition to face-to-face interventions, self-help support may be available through books and online. See the APA's complete list of Self-Help Books and Internet Resources in the Patient Education section.

Other

  • Bright light therapy has been shown to reduce binge frequency in several controlled trials of patients whose binge eating follows a seasonal pattern (akin to seasonal affective disorder) and may be used as an adjunct when CBT and antidepressant therapy have not been effective in reducing bingeing symptoms in such patients.[62]
  • One study provided some support for guided imagery compared to journaling. However, long-term maintenance of treatment effects is unknown.[63]
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Pharmacologic Treatments

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved treatments

Fluoxetine (Prozac): Initial dose 60 mg/d in the morning. Some patients may need to begin at a lower dose if side effects are intolerable. A maximum dose of 80 mg/d may be used in some cases.

Other evidence-based pharmacologic treatments

Antidepressants

  • Antidepressants as a group are the mainstay of pharmacotherapy for bulimia nervosa.[57] These may be helpful for patients with substantial concurrent symptoms of depression, anxiety, obsessions, or certain impulse disorder symptoms. They may be particularly good for patients who have not benefited from or had suboptimal response to suitable psychosocial therapy or who have a chronic, difficult course in combination with other treatments.
  • Among the antidepressants, the strongest evidence for efficacy with the fewest adverse effects has been associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).[64, 57] As mentioned above, only fluoxetine (Prozac) is approved by the FDA for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. Sertraline (Zoloft) at 100 mg or higher dose/day is the only other SSRI shown to be effective, as demonstrated in a small, randomized controlled trial. Fluvoxamine[65] and citalopram[66] have also shown benefit. The exact mechanisms underlying the efficacy of antidepressants in bulimia nervosa are unclear, but the effects are presumed to be mediated through their salutary impact on cerebral serotonin systems. Higher doses of SSRIs require more vigilance regarding side effects, though they appear to be well tolerated in this population.
  • Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is relatively contraindicated in the treatment of bulimia nervosa because of a higher risk of seizures in patients with eating disorders associated with this medication.[57]
  • Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)[67] and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) have been shown to be effective in small randomized controlled trials in patients with bulimia nervosa, but due to higher risks of adverse effects and toxicity in overdose they are not recommended as initial treatments.[57]
    • Desipramine and imipramine (up to 300mg/d)
  • The most recent update of Antidepressants versus placebo for people with bulimia nervosa in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews included TCAs, SSRIs, MAOIs, and other classes of drugs (mianserin, trazodone, bupropion). Similar results were obtained in terms of efficacy for the different groups of drugs. Patients with TCAs dropped out due to any cause more frequently than patients with placebo, and the opposite was found for fluoxetine.[68]

Mood stabilizers

  • Topiramate: Small controlled trials have demonstrated efficacy of this anticonvulsant medication, but since adverse reactions are common, topiramate should be used only when other medications have proven ineffective. Since patients tend to lose weight on topiramate, its use is problematic for normal or underweight patients.[57, 69] Topiramate is useful for short-term treatment of binge eating disorder as it improves binge frequency and decreases weight. Open label studies also suggest that topiramate may be efficacious in the long term, but this remains to be conclusively demonstrated.[70]
  • Lithium: Lithium has not been demonstrated to be effective for bulimia nervosa per se. In patients with co-occurring bipolar disorder and bulimia nervosa, lithium treatment is particularly difficult to manage because of the risk of frequent and major fluid shifts and associated toxicity. As well, some patients have weight gain with lithium, which would have to be aggressively managed if the patients stay on the medication.
  • Valproic acid: Since weight gain is often associated with valproic acid treatment, this medication is often unacceptable to patients with eating disorders who are weight preoccupied, but it is an option for patients who fail other treatments.[57, 71]

Miscellaneous

  • In small studies, ondansetron[72] , baclofen[73] , and an antiandrogenic oral contraceptive[74] have been shown to have some use as alternative pharmacotherapeutic options in the management of bulimia nervosa. Trials investigating naltrexone (ReVia) have shown mixed results, and venlafaxine has not been shown to be beneficial.
  • Clinicians must be aware of the black box warnings relating to antidepressants and other medications to discuss the potential benefits and risks as part of the consent process with patients and families if such medications are to be prescribed. See the statement on Antidepressant Use in Children, Adolescents, and Adults by the Food and Drug Administration.
  • Case reports indicate that methylphenidate may be helpful for patients with bulimia nervosa and concurrent ADHD.[57]

Trials of traditional and nontraditional medication treatments have to be weighed in terms of potential for drug interactions, the medical complications of BN, and the medical comorbidities of BN.

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Follow-up

Treatment outcomes

  • CBT is the single most well-studied and effective treatment for bulimia nervosa. Some studies have reported that the combination of antidepressant therapy and CBT results in the highest remission rates. This combination is recommended initially when qualified CBT therapists are available. In addition, when CBT alone does not result in a substantial reduction in symptoms after 10 sessions, addition of fluoxetine is ordinarily recommended.[57] However, a major study found that when excellent manual-based CBT is administered, the addition of fluoxetine may not offer additional benefit. How best to treat individuals who do not respond to CBT and/or antidepressant medications remains an unsettled question.[63]
  • Limited evidence supports the use of fluoxetine for relapse prevention, but substantial rates of relapse occur even with treatment. The optimal duration of treatment and the optimal strategies for maintaining treatment gains are unknown. In the absence of adequate data, most clinicians recommend continuing antidepressant therapy for a minimum of 9 months and probably for at least 1 year in most patients.[57] Other medications have not been studied long term in bulimia nervosa.
  • With CBT and maintenance treatment, as many as 50% of patients with bulimia nervosa are asymptomatic at follow-up 2-10 years after completing treatment. Rates of persistent long-term improvement following other forms of psychotherapy (eg, IPT, supportive-expressive psychotherapy) are unknown.
  • In a recent update of Psychotherapy for bulimia nervosa and binging in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CBT, particularly CBT-BN (a specific modification of CBT to address bulimia nervosa), noted efficacy in decreasing binge eating. However, these conclusions are limited by the fact that the clinical trials were highly variable and small sample sizes. Long-term interpersonal psychotherapy was also demonstrated to be efficacious. Self-help, alongside highly structured CBT, appeared to be promising. However, exposure and response prevention did not appear to enhance the efficacy of CBT. Psychotherapy alone was unlikely to change body weight.[75]
  • According to the most recent update of Antidepressants versus psychological treatments and their combination for bulimia nervosa in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, combination treatments of medications plus psychotherapy were superior to psychotherapy alone. Psychotherapy appeared to be more acceptable to patients. When antidepressants were combined with psychological treatments, acceptability of the latter was significantly reduced.[76]
  • Technology-based interventions, such as Internet prevention programs, Internet-assisted CBT, online consulting, and text messaging have shown promise in assisting in the treatment of eating disorders.[77, 78, 79]
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Surgical Care

Major medical treatment requiring surgical intervention is rare, but medical care providers should be familiar with potential serious complications.

  • Patients may develop an acute gastric obstruction and/or gastric dilatation[80] (rarely resulting in gastric perforation leading to acute peritonitis), which presents with severe, continuous projectile vomiting that occurs soon after any oral intake. This possibility should be considered in individuals with known bulimia nervosa who present complaining of uncontrollable vomiting. When the potential for gastric dilatation, outlet obstruction, or both is of concern, an urgent surgical consultation is indicated.
  • Emergency surgical review is also required if symptoms suggestive of esophageal tear (Mallory-Weiss syndrome) develop or in case of esophageal rupture, which can precipitate acute mediastinitis. (See images below). For more information, see eMedicine articles Mallory-Weiss Syndrome and Esophageal Rupture. This chest radiograph demonstrates pneumomediastinThis chest radiograph demonstrates pneumomediastinum, which can occur in association with esophageal rupture from forceful vomiting. Water-soluble contrast esophagram from a patient wWater-soluble contrast esophagram from a patient with esophageal perforation after esophageal dilation shows contrast leak (arrowheads) and normal esophageal lumen (arrows). Mallory-Weiss tear. Typical longitudinal mucosal tMallory-Weiss tear. Typical longitudinal mucosal tear with overlying fibrinous exudate extending from the distal esophagus to the gastric cardia. Courtesy of C.J. Gostout, MD.
  • These conditions are surgical emergencies and, although uncommon, are occasional causes of mortality related to bulimia nervosa.
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Consultations

Dental consultations

Dentists and dental hygienists sometimes play a unique role in opening dialogues with patients about eating disorders. They can help with early recognition and refer patients for specialist-level eating disorders care. Similarly, dental professionals can make important contributions to recovery and long-term treatment of these patients.[81]

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Diet

As described above regarding the role of the registered dietician, patient education regarding healthy, well balanced diets, exercise, and long-term maintenance of a healthy weight is important and may help reduce the risk of relapse or chronicity.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Christine I Osterhout, MD  Resident Physician, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis Health System

Christine I Osterhout, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, American Medical Association, and American Psychiatric Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Lorin M Scher, MD  Health Sciences Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine

Lorin M Scher, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine, Alpha Omega Alpha, American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, and Association for Academic Psychiatry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Donald M Hilty, MD  Professor of Clinical Psychiatry, Vice-Chair of Faculty Development, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis School of Medicine

Donald M Hilty, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine, American Association for Technology in Psychiatry, American Psychiatric Association, and Association for Academic Psychiatry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Joel Yager  MD, Professor of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center; Professor of Psychiatry Emeritus, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Professor of Psychiatry Emeritus, University of New Mexico School of Medicine

Joel Yager is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, and Association for Academic Psychiatry

Disclosure: Gurze publishers Salary editing; Massachusetts Medical Society Salary Writing

Specialty Editor Board

Sarah C Aronson, MD  Associate Professor, Departments of Psychiatry and Medicine, Case Western Reserve School of Medicine/University Hospitals of Cleveland

Sarah C Aronson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Family Physicians, American Medical Association, and American Psychiatric Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Harold H Harsch, MD  Program Director of Geropsychiatry, Department of Geriatrics/Gerontology, Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Department of Medicine, Froedtert Hospital, Medical College of Wisconsin

Harold H Harsch, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Psychiatric Association

Disclosure: lilly Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Forest Labs None None; Pfizer Grant/research funds Speaking and teaching; Northstar None None; Novartis Grant/research funds research; Pfizer Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Sunovion Speaking and teaching; Otsuke Grant/research funds reseach; GlaxoSmithKline Grant/research funds research; Merck Honoraria Speaking and teaching

Chief Editor

David Bienenfeld, MD  Professor of Psychiatry, Vice-Chair and Director of Residency Training, Department of Psychiatry, Wright State University, Boonshoft School of Medicine

David Bienenfeld, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, and Association for Academic Psychiatry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Gabriel I Uwaifo, MBBS and Robert C Daly, MB, ChB, MPH to the development and writing of this article.

The authors would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Rebecca Davis, Librarian at the University of California (UC), Davis and Dr. Eric Rickin, Director for the Center for Overcoming Problem Eating (COPE) at the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, Medical Center. Finally, the authors thank the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at UC Davis.

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Parotid hypertrophy. Reprinted with permission from Mandel, L and Siamak, A. Diagnosing bulimia nervosa with parotid gland swelling. J Am Dent Assoc 2004, Vol 135, No 5, 613-616.
Dental caries. Reprinted with permission from Wolcott, RB, Yager, J, Gordon, G. Dental sequelae to the binge-purge syndrome (bulimia): report of cases. JADA. 1984; 109:723-725.
Russell sign. Reprinted with permission from Glorio R, et al. Prevalence of cutaneous manifestations in 200 patients with eating disorders. Int J Derm, 2000, 39(5), 348-353.
This chest radiograph demonstrates pneumomediastinum, which can occur in association with esophageal rupture from forceful vomiting.
Water-soluble contrast esophagram from a patient with esophageal perforation after esophageal dilation shows contrast leak (arrowheads) and normal esophageal lumen (arrows).
Mallory-Weiss tear. Typical longitudinal mucosal tear with overlying fibrinous exudate extending from the distal esophagus to the gastric cardia. Courtesy of C.J. Gostout, MD.
Table. Self-Help Books and Internet Resources on Eating Disorders
CBT-oriented workbooksAgras WS, Apple RF: Overcoming Eating Disorders: A Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Bulimia Nervosa and Binge-Eating Disorder. New York, Oxford University Press, 1997 (client workbook)
Agras WS, Apple RF: Overcoming Eating Disorders: A Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Bulimia Nervosa and Binge-Eating Disorder. New York, Oxford University Press, 1997 (therapist workbook)
Cash TF: The Body Image Workbook: An 8-Step Program for Learning to Like Your Looks. Oakland, CA, New Harbinger, 1997
Fairburn C: Overcoming Binge Eating. New York, Guilford, 1995
Goodman LJ, Villapiano M: Eating Disorders:The Journey to Recovery Workbook. New York, Brunner-Routledge, 2001 (client workbook)
Goodman LJ, Villapiano M: Eating Disorders: Time for Change. Plans, Strategies, and Worksheets. New York, Brunner-Routledge, 2001 (therapist workbook)
Schmidt U, Treasure J: Getting Better Bit(e) by Bit(e): A Survival Kit for Sufferers of Bulimia Nervosa and Binge Eating Disorder. East Sussex, UK, Psychology Press, 1993
Other books reported to be helpful by patients/familiesBulik CM, Taylor N: Runaway Eating: The 8-Point Plan to Conquer Adult Food and Weight Obsessions. New York, Rodale Books, 2005
Ellis A, Abrams M, Dengelegi L: The Art and Science of Rational Eating. Fort Lee, NJ, Barricade Books, 1992
Goodman LJ, Villapiano M: Eating Disorders: The Journey to Recovery Workbook. New York, Brunner-Routledge, 2001 (client workbook)
Hall L: Full Lives: Women Who Have Freed Themselves From Food and Weight Obsessions. Carlsbad, CA, Gürze Books, 1993
Lock J, le Grange D: Help Your Teenager Beat an Eating Disorder. New York, Guilford, 2005
Michel DM, Willard SG: When Dieting Becomes Dangerous. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 2003
Walsh BT, Cameron VL: If Your Child Has an Eating Disorder: An Essential Resource for Parents. New York, Guilford, 2005
Zerbe K: The Body Betrayed: A Deeper Understanding of Women, Eating Disorders, and Treatment. Carlsbad, CA, Gürze Books, 1995
Books reported to be helpful for male patientsAndersen AE, Cohn L, Holbrook T: Making Weight: Men's Conflicts With Food, Weight, Shape and Appearance. Carlsbad, CA, Gürze Books, 2000
Internet resources for health care professionalsAcademy for Eating Disorders (http://www.aedweb.org)
Internet resources for patients, families, and professionalsNational Eating Disorders Association (http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org)National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (http://www.anad.org/site/anadweb/)
Eating Disorder Referral and Information Center (http://www.edreferral.com)
Something Fishy (http://www.something-fishy.org; a well-monitored advocacy site)
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