Emphysema Medication

  • Author: Berj George Demirjian, MD; Chief Editor: Zab Mosenifar, MD   more...
 
Updated: Sep 16, 2011
 

Medication Summary

Oral and inhaled medications are used for patients with stable emphysema to reduce dyspnea and improve exercise tolerance. Most of the medications used in emphysema treatment are directed at the 4 potentially reversible mechanisms of airflow limitation: (1) bronchial smooth muscle contraction, (2) bronchial mucosal congestion and edema, (3) airway inflammation, and (4) increased airway secretions.

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Bronchodilators

Class Summary

These agents decrease muscle tone in both the small and large airways of the lungs, thereby increasing ventilation. This category beta-adrenergic agents, methylxanthines, and anticholinergics.

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Albuterol (Proventil, Ventolin)

 

Beta2 agonist that relaxes bronchial smooth muscle by action on beta2 receptors, with little effect on cardiac muscle contractility. Most patients (even those who have no measurable increase in expiratory flow) benefit from treatment. Inhaled beta-agonists initially are prescribed as needed. Frequency may be increased. Institute regular schedule in patients on anticholinergic drugs who remain symptomatic. Available as liquid for nebulizer, metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), and dry-powder inhalers.

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Metaproterenol (Alupent)

 

Relaxes bronchial smooth muscle by action on beta2 receptors, with little effect on cardiac muscle contractility. Most patients (even those who have no measurable increase in expiratory flow) benefit from treatment. Inhaled beta-agonists initially are prescribed as needed. Frequency may be increased. Institute regular schedule in patients on anticholinergic drugs who remain symptomatic. Available as liquid for nebulizer, MDIs, and dry-powder inhalers.

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Levalbuterol (Xopenex)

 

Used for treatment or prevention of bronchospasm. A selective beta2-agonist agent. Albuterol is a racemic mixture, while levalbuterol contains only the active R- enantiomer of albuterol. The S-enantiomer does not bind to beta2-receptors, but may be responsible for some adverse effects of racemic albuterol, including bronchial hyperreactivity and reduced pulmonary function during prolonged use.

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Ipratropium (Atrovent)

 

Chemically related to atropine. Has antisecretory properties, and, when applied locally, inhibits secretions from serous and seromucous glands lining the nasal mucosa. Used on a fixed schedule with a beta-agonist.

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Salmeterol (Serevent)

 

By relaxing the smooth muscles of the bronchioles in conditions associated with bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, or bronchiectasis, salmeterol can relieve bronchospasm. Effect also may facilitate expectoration. May be useful when bronchodilators are used frequently. More studies are needed to establish the role for these agents. When administered at high or more frequent doses than recommended, incidence of adverse effects is higher. The bronchodilating effect lasts >12 h. Used on a fixed schedule in addition to regular use of anticholinergic agents.

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Formoterol (Oxis, Foradil)

 

Currently not available in the United States (investigational beta-agonist with rapid onset and long duration of action). By relaxing the smooth muscles of the bronchioles in conditions associated with bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, or bronchiectasis, it can relieve bronchospasms. Effect also may facilitate expectoration.

Shown to improve symptoms and morning peak flows in asthma. May be useful when bronchodilators are used frequently. More studies are needed to establish the role for these agents.

When administered at high or more frequent doses than recommended, incidence of adverse effects is higher. The bronchodilating effect lasts >12 h. Used on a fixed schedule in addition to regular use of anticholinergic agents.

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Indacaterol, inhaled (Arcapta Neohaler)

 

Long-acting beta2-agonist (LABA) indicated for long-term, once-daily maintenance bronchodilator treatment of airflow obstruction in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), including chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. LABAs act locally in the lungs as bronchodilators. Stimulates intracellular adenyl cyclase, causing conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP; increased cyclic AMP levels cause relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle. Not for use as initial therapy in patients with acute deteriorating COPD.

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Tiotropium (Spiriva)

 

A quaternary ammonium compound. Elicits anticholinergic/antimuscarinic effects with inhibitory effects on M3 receptors on airway smooth muscles, leading to bronchodilation. Available as cap dosage form containing a dry powder for oral inhalation via HandiHaler inhalation device. Helps COPD patients by dilating narrowed airways and keeping them open for 24 h.

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Theophylline (Aminophylline, Theo-24, Theo-Dur, Slo-bid)

 

Potentiates exogenous catecholamines. Stimulates endogenous catecholamine release and diaphragmatic muscular relaxation, which stimulates bronchodilation.

Popularity has decreased because of narrow therapeutic range and frequent toxicity. Bronchodilation may require near-toxic (>20 mg/dL) levels. However, clinical efficacy is controversial, especially in the acute setting.

Shown to increase exercise capacity, decrease dyspnea, and improve gas exchange. A longer-acting agent is used qd or bid.

Target concentration is 5-10 mcg/mL. Dosing = (target concentration - current level) X 0.5 (ideal body weight). Alternatively, 1 mg/kg results in approximately a 2-mcg/mL increase in serum levels.

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Corticosteroids

Class Summary

These agents attempt to moderate the inflammatory component of COPD. They should only be added to a regimen that includes a long-acting bronchodilator.

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Fluticasone inhaled

 

Has extremely potent vasoconstrictive and anti-inflammatory activity. Has weak inhibitory effects on HPA axis when used at high doses for prolonged periods of time. Effectiveness is not established in COPD.

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Budesonide inhaled

 

Has extremely potent vasoconstrictive and anti-inflammatory activity. Has weak inhibitory effects on HPA axis when used at high doses for prolonged periods of time. Effectiveness is not established in COPD.

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Smoking cessation therapies

Class Summary

Most effective when used in conjunction with a support program (ie, counseling, group therapy, and behavioral therapy).

Bupropion is used as a nonnicotine aid to smoking cessation. One study demonstrated 23% sustained cessation with bupropion tablets at 1 year, compared with a 12% sustained cessation with placebo. Bupropion also may be effective in patients who do not quit with nicotine replacement therapy.

Varenicline (Chantix) is a partial agonist selective for alpha4, beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It is used in conjunction with support groups and/or behavioral counseling. Gradually increase dose upward within 1 wk before quit date to 1 mg PO bid pc. Decrease dose with severe renal impairment or end-stage renal disease

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Nicotine transdermal system (Nicotrol, Habitrol, NicoDerm CQ)

 

Individuals who smoke >1 pack/d initially need a 21-mg patch followed by 14- and 7-mg patches.

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Nicotine polacrilex (Nicorette)

 

Nicotine is absorbed through oral mucosa. Quickly absorbed and closely approximates time course of plasma nicotine levels observed after cigarette smoking.

Available as 2- or 4-mg gum in box containing 96 pieces. Careful adherence to chewing instructions is important for effective use. Manufacturer recommends that gum not be used longer than 6 mo.

Individual who smokes 1 pack/d should use 4-mg pieces. The 2-mg pieces are to be used by individuals who smoke < 1 pack/d. Instruct patient to chew hourly and for initial cravings for 2 wk, then gradually reduce amount chewed over 3 mo.

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Bupropion (Zyban)

 

Used in conjunction with a support group and/or behavioral counseling. Inhibits neuronal dopamine reuptake in addition to being a weak blocker of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake.

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Varenicline (Chantix)

 

Partial agonist selective for alpha4, beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Action is thought to be the result of activity at a nicotinic receptor subtype where its binding produces agonist activity, while simultaneously preventing nicotine binding. The agonistic activity is significantly lower than nicotine. Also elicits moderate affinity for 5-HT3 receptors. Maximum plasma concentrations occur within 3-4 h after oral administration. Following regular dosing, steady state is reached within 4 d.

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Antibiotics

Class Summary

Empiric antimicrobial therapy must be comprehensive and should cover all likely pathogens in the context of the clinical setting.

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Amoxicillin (Amoxil, Trimox, Moxatag)

 

Interferes with synthesis of cell wall mucopeptides during active multiplication resulting in bactericidal activity against susceptible bacteria

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Doxycycline (Doryx, Monodox, Doxy, Adoxa)

 

Broad-spectrum, synthetically derived bacteriostatic antibiotic in the tetracycline class. Almost completely absorbed, concentrates in bile, and is excreted in urine and feces as a biologically active metabolite in high concentrations.

Inhibits protein synthesis and, thus, bacterial growth by binding to 30S and possibly 50S ribosomal subunits of susceptible bacteria. May block dissociation of peptidyl t-RNA from ribosomes, causing RNA-dependent protein synthesis to arrest.

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Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole

 

Inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid, resulting in inhibition of bacterial growth. Antibacterial activity of TMP-SMZ includes common urinary tract pathogens, except Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Like tetracycline, it has in vitro activity against Bartonella pertussis. Not useful in mycoplasmal infections.

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Azithromycin (Zithromax)

 

These agents are replacing erythromycin as therapy for community-acquired pneumonia. They cover most potential etiologic agents, including Mycoplasma. The newer macrolides offer decreased GI upset and potential for improved compliance through reduced dosing frequency. They also afford improved action against Haemophilus influenzae.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Berj George Demirjian, MD  Fellow, Division of Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

Berj George Demirjian, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American Medical Association, California Medical Association, California Thoracic Society, and Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Nader Kamangar, MD, FACP, FCCP, FCCM  Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine, Olive View-UCLA Medical Center; Associate Program Director, Pulmonary and Critical Care Multi-Campus Fellowship Program, Cedars-Sinai/West Los Angeles Veterans Affairs/Los Angeles Kaiser Permanente/Olive View-UCLA Medical Center; Site Director, Pulmonary/Critical Care Fellowship Program, Olive View-UCLA Medical Center

Nader Kamangar, MD, FACP, FCCP, FCCM is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American Association of Bronchology, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Lung Association, American Medical Association, American Thoracic Society, California Thoracic Society, and Society of Critical Care Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Helen M Hollingsworth, MD  Director, Adult Asthma and Allergy Services, Associate Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Boston Medical Center

Helen M Hollingsworth, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and Massachusetts Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Timothy D Rice, MD  Associate Professor, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

Timothy D Rice, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics and American College of Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Zab Mosenifar, MD  Director, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Director, Women's Guild Pulmonary Disease Institute, Professor and Executive Vice Chair, Department of Medicine, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Zab Mosenifar, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, and American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC, to the development and writing of this article.

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Gross pathology of bullous emphysema shows bullae on the surface of the lungs.
Gross pathology of emphysema shows bullae on the lung surface.
At high magnification, loss of airway walls and dilated airspaces are observed in emphysema.
Chest radiograph shows hyperinflation, flattened diaphragms, increased retrosternal space, and hyperlucency of the lung parenchyma in emphysema.
A CT scan shows emphysematous bullae in upper lobes.
Diffuse emphysema secondary to cigarette smoking.
Pressure-volume curve is drawn for a patient with restrictive lung disease and obstructive disease and is compared to healthy lungs.
Flow-volume curve of lungs with emphysema shows marked decrease in expiratory flows, hyperinflation, and air trapping (patient B) compared to a patient with restrictive lung disease, who has reduced lung volumes and preserved flows (patient A).
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) can be used to evaluate the prognosis in patients with emphysema. The benefit of smoking cessation is shown here because the deterioration in lung function parallels that of a nonsmoker, even in late stages of the disease.
A CT scan showing severe emphysema and bullous disease.
An emphysematous lung shows increased anteroposterior (AP) diameter, increased retrosternal airspace, and flattened diaphragms on posteroanterior (PA) film.
An emphysematous lung shows increased anteroposterior (AP) diameter, increased retrosternal airspace, and flattened diaphragms on lateral chest radiograph.
The differential diagnosis of unilateral hyperlucent lung includes pulmonary arterial hypoplasia and Swyer-James syndrome. The expiratory chest radiograph exhibits evidence of air trapping and is helpful in making the diagnosis. Swyer-James syndrome is unilateral bronchiolitis obliterans, which develops during early childhood.
Lateral chest radiograph of Swyer-James syndrome may demonstrate some of the features of emphysema.
 
 
 
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