eMedicine Specialties > Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation > Lower Limb Musculoskeletal Conditions
Calcaneal Bursitis
Updated: May 4, 2008
Introduction
Background
Pain at the posterior heel or posterior ankle is most commonly caused by pathology at the posterior calcaneus, the Achilles (calcaneal) tendon, or the associated bursae. The following bursae are located just superior to the insertion of the Achilles tendon1,2,3 :
- Subtendinous calcaneal bursa - This bursa (also called the retrocalcaneal bursa), situated anterior (deep) to the Achilles tendon, is located between the Achilles tendon and the calcaneus.4
- Subcutaneous calcaneal bursa - Also called the Achilles bursa, it is found posterior (superficial) to the Achilles tendon, lying between the skin and the posterior aspect of the distal Achilles tendon.
Inflammation of one or both of these bursae can cause pain in the posterior heel and ankle regions.5,6
Haglund deformity (prominence of the posterior superior calcaneus) is not a true synonym for calcaneal bursitis, but it can be a closely associated condition.
Related eMedicine topics:
Bursitis [Emergency Medicine]
Bursitis [Orthopedic Surgery]
Retrocalcaneal Bursitis
Pathophysiology
Inflammation of the calcaneal bursae is most commonly caused by repetitive overuse and cumulative trauma, as seen in runners wearing tight-fitting shoes. Such bursitis may also be associated with conditions such as gout, rheumatoid arthritis, and seronegative spondyloarthropathies.
In some cases, subtendinous calcaneal bursitis is caused by bursal impingement between the Achilles tendon and an excessively prominent posterior superior aspect of a calcaneus that has been affected by Haglund deformity. With Haglund disease, impingement occurs during ankle dorsiflexion.
Frequency
United States
Calcaneal bursitis is seen somewhat frequently, particularly if the clinician has a predominantly musculoskeletal practice.
Mortality/Morbidity
- No mortality is associated with calcaneal bursitis.
- Morbidity is associated with progressive pain and limping (antalgic gait) in patients who have not received adequate treatment. If chronic inflammation also affects the distal Achilles tendon, rupture of the tendon may occur.
Race
No race predilection has been documented.
Sex
Calcaneal bursitis is observed in men and women. However, some increased risk may be incurred by women who wear high-heeled shoes.
Age
Calcaneal bursitis is commonly observed in middle-aged and elderly persons; the condition is also seen in athletes of all ages.
Clinical
History
Obtaining a detailed history from the patient is important in diagnosing calcaneal bursitis.7 The following complaints (which the physician should ask about during the subjective examination) are commonly reported by patients:
- Posterior heel pain is the chief complaint in individuals with calcaneal bursitis.
- Patients may report limping caused by the posterior heel pain.
- Some individuals may also report an obvious swelling (eg, a pump bump, a term that presumably comes from the swelling's association with high-heeled shoes or pumps).
- The condition may be unilateral or bilateral.
- Symptoms are often worse when the patient first begins an activity after rest.
Other inquiries that the physician should make include the following:
- The clinician should ask about the patient's customary footwear (whether, for example, it includes high-heeled shoes or tight-fitting athletic shoes).
- The patient should be asked specifically about any recent change in footwear, such as whether he/she is wearing new athletic shoes or whether the patient has made a transition from flat shoes to high heels or vice versa. Individuals who have been accustomed to wearing high-heeled shoes on a long-term basis may find that switching to flat shoes causes increased stretch and irritation of the Achilles tendon and the associated bursae.
- The specifics of a patient's activity level should be ascertained, including how far the patient runs and, in particular, whether the individual is running with greater intensity than before or has increased the distance being run.
- The history of any known or suspected underlying rheumatologic conditions, such as gout, rheumatoid arthritis, or seronegative spondyloarthropathies, should be obtained.
Physical
During the physical examination of a patient with calcaneal bursitis, the physician should keep the following considerations in mind:
- Swelling and redness of the posterior heel (the pump bump) may be clearly apparent.
- The inflamed area, which may be slightly warm to the touch, is generally tender to palpation.
- Careful examination can help the clinician to distinguish whether the inflammation is posterior to the Achilles tendon (within the subcutaneous calcaneal bursa) or anterior to the tendon (within the subtendinous calcaneal bursa). Differentiating Achilles tendinitis/tendinosis from bursitis may be impossible. At times, the 2 conditions co-exist.
- Isolated subtendinous calcaneal bursitis is characterized by tenderness that is best isolated by palpating just anterior to the medial and lateral edges of the distal Achilles tendon.
- Conversely, insertional Achilles tendinitis is notable for tenderness that is located slightly more distally, where the Achilles tendon inserts on the posterior calcaneus.
- A patient with plantar fasciitis has tenderness along the posterior aspect of the sole, but he/she should not have tenderness with palpation of the posterior heel or ankle.7
- A patient with a complete avulsion or rupture of the Achilles tendon demonstrates a palpable defect in the tendon, weakness in plantarflexion, and a positive Thompson test on physical examination. During the Thompson test, the examiner squeezes the calf. The test is negative if this maneuver results in passive plantarflexion of the ankle, which would indicate that the Achilles tendon is at least partially intact.
Causes
- Overtraining in a runner (eg, excessive increases in miles or intensity)
- Tight or poorly fitting shoes that, because of a restrictive heel counter, exert excessive pressure on the posterior heel and ankle
- Haglund deformity, causing impingement between the increased posterior superior calcaneal prominence and the Achilles tendon during dorsiflexion
Differential Diagnoses
Achilles Tendon Injuries and Tendonitis
Plantar Fasciitis
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Stress Fracture
Other Problems to Be Considered
Gout
Haglund deformity
Seronegative spondyloarthropathies
Stress fracture of the calcaneus
Sural neuritis
Workup
Laboratory Studies
- If the appearance of the bursitis cannot be explained by local factors (eg, ill-fitting shoes, excessive running, high heels) or if there are systemic symptoms or signs of rheumatologic involvement, the clinician should consider laboratory studies to evaluate for the possibility of gout (hyperuricemia), rheumatoid arthritis (rheumatoid factor), and seronegative spondyloarthropathies (HLA B-27, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and/or C-reactive protein).
Related Medscape topics:
Resource Center Gout
Resource Center Rheumatoid Arthritis
Imaging Studies
- Plain radiographs of the calcaneus may reveal Haglund deformity, which can be seen best on the lateral view.
- Plain radiographs can also be used to evaluate for stress fracture of the calcaneus. If the plain radiographs are negative for stress fracture but this injury possibility remains a significant diagnostic consideration, a 3-phase bone scan or a computed tomography (CT) scan of the calcaneus should be obtained.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans may demonstrate bursal inflammation but probably do not offer much more information than is apparent from careful physical examination. Theoretically, MRI scans may help to determine whether the inflammation is in the subcutaneous calcaneal bursa, the subtendinous calcaneal bursa, or the tendon itself, but such testing is generally unnecessary.8,9
- Some clinicians have suggested that ultrasonography can be used in place of MRI in cases in which imaging is desired to investigate pathology at the posterior heel, but further research in this area is needed.10,11
Procedures
- Generally, no diagnostic procedures are required.
Histologic Findings
Bursal inflammation is present in patients with calcaneal bursitis, but obtaining a histologic specimen from an actual patient would be extremely rare.
Treatment
Rehabilitation Program
Physical Therapy
Gradually progressive stretching of the Achilles tendon may help to relieve impingement on the subtendinous calcaneal bursa. Stretching of the Achilles tendon can be performed by having the patient place the affected foot flat on the floor and lean forward toward the wall until a gentle stretch is felt in the ipsilateral Achilles tendon. The stretch is maintained for 20-60 seconds and then is relaxed. This technique is demonstrated in Images 1-2. Another technique, a more advanced stretch that isolates the Achilles tendon, is shown in Images 3-4.
To maximize the benefit of the stretching program, the patient should repeat the exercise for multiple stretches per set, multiple times per day. Ballistic (ie, abrupt, jerking) stretches should be avoided in order to prevent clinical exacerbation.
The patient should be instructed to ice the posterior heel and ankle in order to reduce inflammation and pain. Icing can be performed for 15-20 minutes at a time, several times a day, during the acute period, which may last for several days. Some clinicians also advocate the use of contrast baths, ultrasound or phonophoresis, iontophoresis, or electrical stimulation for treatment of calcaneal bursitis.
If the patient's activity level needs to be decreased as a result of this condition, alternative means of maintaining strength and cardiovascular fitness (eg, swimming, water aerobics) should be suggested.
Medical Issues/Complications
- Addressing footwear
- Changing footwear may be the most important form of treatment for calcaneal bursitis. The use of an open-backed shoe may relieve pressure on the affected region.
- Individuals whose symptoms have been precipitated by a dramatic footwear change, specifically, a switch from high-heeled shoes to flat shoes (or vice versa), may need to temporarily use footwear with a medium heel height.
- Athletes should be encouraged to change running shoes on a regular basis, because the shoes' fit, as well as the support the shoes provide, may change over the course of hundreds of miles of use.
- Further modification of shoes
- A portion of the heel counter can be cut away and replaced with a soft leather insert to decrease friction at the site where the heel counter meets the skin.
- Shoes without laces (eg, slip-on shoes, sandals) inherently fit closely onto the heel and should be avoided.
- Inserting a heel cup into the shoe may help to raise the inflamed region slightly above the restricting heel counter. If this approach is implemented, a heel cup should also be placed into the other shoe to avoid introducing a leg-length discrepancy.
- Immobilization
- The initial accommodation of the bursitis by the introduction of rest or of a decrease in or modification of activity may suffice to reverse the bursitis and its symptoms.
- If the symptoms are resistant to the above treatments, immobilization in a cast for 4-6 weeks should be considered.
- Complications from calcaneal bursitis or its treatment
- Progressive posterior heel and ankle pain
- Rupture of the Achilles tendon, either secondary to chronic local inflammation/degeneration or as a result of corticosteroid injection(s)
- Some clinicians advocate the use of corticosteroid injection(s) into the affected bursa, being careful to avoid injection within the Achilles tendon.12 Because of the close proximity of the Achilles tendon to the bursae, such injections should be considered only in severe, recalcitrant cases. The authors of this article generally recommend against corticosteroid injection in the vicinity of the Achilles tendon because of the potential risk of tendon rupture. However, prospective, randomized studies have not been performed to establish whether steroid injections cause such tendon ruptures. Instead, the association between steroid injections and subsequent tendon ruptures is mostly based on retrospective case reports. Potentially, those cases that were more likely to go on to rupture were also more likely to have a severe presentation that prompted the steroid injections.
- One case report demonstrated that subtendinous calcaneal bursitis can be not only diagnosed but also treated with ultrasonography. Ultrasonographic guidance can be used to inject the subtendinous calcaneal bursa with a commendation of local anesthetic (eg, lidocaine, giving relief within minutes and lasting several hours) combined with corticosteroid (eg, Kenalog, producing an anti-inflammatory effect within 24-48 h and providing relief for weeks to months). The authors feel that using ultrasonographic guidance can help to ensure reliable, accurate delivery of medication into the bursa while avoiding intratendinous injection.11
Surgical Intervention
For patients who have persistent or progressive symptoms despite rigorous nonsurgical treatment, the following surgical interventions are options:
- Resection of Haglund deformity, removing the calcaneal superoposterior prominence (ostectomy)
- Excision of the painful bursa or bursae
- Debridement of the Achilles insertion
- In cases of Achilles tendon rupture or avulsion, surgical re-anastomosis is indicated.
- Outpatient endoscopic removal of the inflamed bursal tissue and resection of the prominent bone.13
Consultations
Patients requiring surgical intervention should be referred for surgical consultation to an orthopedic surgeon who is experienced in foot and ankle surgery.
Other Treatment
As discussed above, corticosteroid injection in this region is not recommended because of the potential risk of rupturing the Achilles tendon.
Medication
For this musculoskeletal condition, medications are used primarily to decrease pain and inflammation. Thus, the most commonly used medications are oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which are employed in conjunction with the rest of the rehabilitation plan.14
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Oral NSAIDs can help to decrease pain and inflammation. Various oral NSAIDs can be used, with the choice of drug being largely a matter of convenience (how frequently doses must be taken to achieve adequate analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects) and cost.
Ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil, Nuprin, Rufen)
DOC for patients with mild to moderate pain. Inhibits inflammatory reactions and pain by decreasing prostaglandin synthesis. Various doses are available with and without a prescription.
Dosing
Adult
200-800 mg PO tid/qid
Pediatric
<6 months: Not established
6 months to 12 years: 4-10 mg/kg/dose PO tid/qid
>12 years: Administer as in adults
Interactions
Co-administration with aspirin increases risk of inducing serious, NSAID-related adverse effects; probenecid may increase concentrations and, possibly, toxicity of NSAIDs; may decrease effect of hydralazine, captopril, and beta-blockers; may decrease diuretic effects of furosemide and thiazides; monitor PT closely (instruct patients to watch for signs of bleeding); may increase risk of methotrexate toxicity; phenytoin levels may be increased when phenytoin is administered concurrently
Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity, peptic ulcer disease, recent GI bleeding or perforation, renal insufficiency, patients with high risk of bleeding
Precautions
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution in congestive heart failure, hypertension, and decreased renal and hepatic function; caution in anticoagulation abnormalities or during anticoagulant therapy
Naproxen (Naprelan, Naprosyn, Aleve, Anaprox)
For relief of mild to moderate pain; inhibits inflammatory reactions and pain by decreasing the activity of cyclo-oxygenase, which results in a decrease of prostaglandin synthesis.
Dosing
Adult
500 mg PO followed by 250 mg q6-8h; not to exceed 1.25 g/d
Pediatric
<2 years: Not established
>2 years: 2.5 mg/kg/dose PO; not to exceed 10 mg/kg/d
Interactions
Co-administration with aspirin increases risk of inducing serious, NSAID-related adverse effects; probenecid may increase concentrations and, possibly, toxicity of NSAIDs; may decrease effect of hydralazine, captopril, and beta blockers; may decrease diuretic effects of furosemide and thiazides; monitor PT closely (instruct patients to watch for signs of bleeding); may increase risk of methotrexate toxicity; phenytoin levels may be increased when phenytoin is administered concurrently
Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity; peptic ulcer disease, recent GI bleeding or perforation, renal insufficiency
Precautions
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Acute renal insufficiency, interstitial nephritis, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and renal papillary necrosis may occur; patients with pre-existing renal disease or compromised renal perfusion risk acute renal failure; leukopenia occurs rarely and is transient, usually clearing up during therapy; persistent leukopenia, granulocytopenia, or thrombocytopenia warrants further evaluation and may require discontinuation of drug
Ketoprofen (Actron, Orudis, Oruvail)
For relief of mild to moderate pain and inflammation.
Small dosages are initially indicated in small and elderly patients and in persons with renal or liver disease. Doses over 75 mg do not increase therapeutic effects. Administer high doses with caution and closely observe patient for response.
Dosing
Adult
25-50 mg PO q6-8h prn; not to exceed 300 mg/d
Pediatric
<3 months: Not established
3 months to 12 years: 0.1-1 mg/kg PO q6-8h
>12 years: Administer as in adults
Interactions
Co-administration with aspirin increases risk of inducing serious, NSAID-related adverse effects; probenecid may increase concentrations and, possibly, toxicity of NSAIDs; may decrease effect of hydralazine, captopril, and beta blockers; may decrease diuretic effects of furosemide and thiazides; monitor PT closely (instruct patients to watch for signs of bleeding); may increase risk of methotrexate toxicity; phenytoin levels may be increased when phenytoin is administered concurrently
Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity
Precautions
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution in congestive heart failure, hypertension, and decreased renal and hepatic function; caution in anticoagulation abnormalities or during anticoagulant therapy
Flurbiprofen (Ansaid)
May inhibit cyclo-oxygenase enzyme, which in turn inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis. These effects may result in analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activities.
Dosing
Adult
200-300 mg/d PO divided bid/qid
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Co-administration with aspirin increases risk of inducing serious, NSAID-related adverse effects; probenecid may increase concentrations and, possibly, toxicity of NSAIDs; may decrease effect of hydralazine, captopril, and beta blockers; may decrease diuretic effects of furosemide and thiazides; monitor PT closely (instruct patients to watch for signs of bleeding); may increase risk of methotrexate toxicity; phenytoin levels may be increased when phenytoin is administered concurrently
Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity
Precautions
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Acute renal insufficiency, interstitial nephritis, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and renal papillary necrosis may occur; patients with pre-existing renal disease or compromised renal perfusion risk acute renal failure; leukopenia occurs rarely and is transient, usually clearing up during therapy; persistent leukopenia, granulocytopenia, or thrombocytopenia warrants further evaluation and may require discontinuation of drug
Follow-up
Further Outpatient Care
- The patient should return for re-evaluation every 4-6 weeks until the symptoms are resolved or under adequate control.
- These follow-up visits provide the clinician with an opportunity to monitor the efficacy of the treatment plan and to make appropriate modifications if the patient's symptoms have not adequately improved.
Deterrence
- The patient should avoid footwear that fits tightly at the posterior heel.
- High-heeled shoes should be avoided.
Complications
- Chronic or progressive posterior heel pain
- Limping (antalgic gait)
- Achilles tendon rupture occurring secondary to chronic inflammation or perhaps resulting from corticosteroid injection
Prognosis
- Most patients respond well to a combination of local icing, oral anti-inflammatory medications, Achilles tendon stretching, and footwear modification.
- Surgical intervention may provide good results for patients in whom conservative treatment has failed.
Patient Education
- The patient should be educated in the proper performance of Achilles tendon stretching.
- The patient should understand the rationale for appropriate footwear.
- A patient who is considering corticosteroid injection must understand the potential risks and benefits of this treatment.
- For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Hip Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education article Bursitis.
Miscellaneous
Medicolegal Pitfalls
- Because with a local corticosteroid injection at the posterior ankle the potential exists for an increased risk of Achilles tendon rupture, such injections should generally be avoided or the patient should be informed of the potential risk during the informed consent process.
- Calcaneal stress fracture should be considered, particularly if there is bony tenderness at the midcalcaneal region (rather than at the Achilles tendon and its associated bursae). Since plain radiographs alone may miss a stress fracture, further imaging, such as a 3-phase bone scan or a CT scan, should be considered.
Special Concerns
- Athletes are often eager to continue or resume their usual exercise programs in a manner that is too rapid to allow for adequate physiologic recovery. Thus, offering the athlete alternative means of maintaining strength and cardiovascular fitness (eg, swimming, pool aerobics) is important.
Multimedia
Media file 1: Achilles stretch 1; whole-person view. The patient stands with the affected foot flat on the floor and leans forward toward the wall until a gentle stretch is felt in the ipsilateral Achilles tendon. The stretch is maintained for 20-60 seconds and then is relaxed.
Media file 2: Achilles stretch 1; cropped view showing a close-up of the region affected by this type of stretch. A description of the stretch is provided with Image 1.
Media file 3: Achilles stretch 2; whole person view. This stretch, which is somewhat more advanced than that shown in Images 1-2, isolates the Achilles tendon. It is held for at least 20-30 seconds and then is relaxed.
Media file 4: Achilles stretch 2; close-up view. A description of the stretch is provided with Image 3.
References
Brinker MR, Miller MD. The adult foot. In: Fundamentals of Orthopaedics. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1999:342-63.
Foot and ankle. In: Snider RK, ed. Essentials of Musculoskeletal Care. Rosemont, Ill: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1997:366-489.
McGee DJ. Lower leg, ankle, and foot. In: Orthopedic Physical Assessment. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1992:448-515.
Kachlik D, Baca V, Cepelik M, et al. Clinical anatomy of the retrocalcaneal bursa. Surg Radiol Anat. Mar 11 2008;[Medline].
Teebagy AK. Leg and ankle. In: Steinberg GG, Akins CM, Baran DT, eds. Orthopaedics in Primary Care. 3rd ed. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999:241-67.
Young JL, Olsen NK, Press JM. Musculoskeletal disorders of the lower limbs. In: Braddom RL, ed. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1996:783-812.
Aldridge T. Diagnosing heel pain in adults. Am Fam Physician. Jul 15 2004;70(2):332-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Eshed I, Althoff CE, Feist E, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of hindfoot involvement in patients with spondyloarthritides: comparison of low-field and high-field strength units. Eur J Radiol. Jan 2008;65(1):140-7. [Medline].
Erdem CZ, Tekin NS, Sarikaya S, et al. MR imaging features of foot involvement in patients with psoriasis. Eur J Radiol. Nov 8 2007;[Medline].
Reiter M, Ulreich N, Dirisamer A, et al. [Extended field-of-view sonography in Achilles tendon disease: a comparison with MR imaging]. Rofo. May 2004;176(5):704-8. [Medline].
Sofka CM, Adler RS, Positano R, et al. Haglund's syndrome: diagnosis and treatment using sonography. HSS J. Feb 2006;2(1):27-9.
Olsen NK, Press JM, Young JL. Bursal injections. In: Lennard TA, ed. Physiatric Procedures in Clinical Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: Hanley & Belfus; 1995:36-43.
Ortmann FW, McBryde AM. Endoscopic bony and soft-tissue decompression of the retrocalcaneal space for the treatment of Haglund deformity and retrocalcaneal bursitis. Foot Ankle Int. Feb 2007;28(2):149-53. [Medline].
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In: Green SM, ed. Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2000. Loma Linda, Calif: Tarascon Pub; 2000:11-2.
Keywords
calcaneal bursitis, bursitis of the subtendinous or subcutaneous bursa of the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon, bursitis of the subtendinous or subcutaneous calcaneal bursa, bursitis of the subtendinous or subcutaneous retrocalcaneal bursa, exostosis, Haglund deformity, prominence of the posterior superior calcaneus, retrocalcaneal bursitis, pump bump
Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author
Patrick M Foye, MD, FAAPMR, FAAEM, Associate Professor of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Co-Director of Musculoskeletal Fellowship, Co-Director of Back Pain Clinic, Director of Coccyx Pain (Tailbone Pain, Coccydynia) Service, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School
Patrick M Foye, MD, FAAPMR, FAAEM is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, Association of Academic Physiatrists, and International Spine Intervention Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Coauthor(s)
Todd P Stitik, MD, Professor, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Acting Director of Sports Medicine, UMDNJ-New Jersey School of Medicine; Lead Physician, Practice Medical Director of University Hospital PM & R Clinic
Todd P Stitik, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Association of Academic Physiatrists, Phi Beta Kappa, and Physiatric Association of Spine, Sports and Occupational Rehabilitation
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Medical Editor
Daniel D Scott, MD, MA, BS, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center
Daniel D Scott, MD, MA, BS is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Paraplegia Society, Association of Academic Physiatrists, National Multiple Sclerosis Society, and Physiatric Association of Spine, Sports and Occupational Rehabilitation
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Pharmacy Editor
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Managing Editor
Michael T Andary, MD, MS, Residency Program Director, Professor, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine
Michael T Andary, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Medical Association, and Association of Academic Physiatrists
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
CME Editor
Kelly L Allen, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Lourdes Regional Rehabilitation Center, Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
Consuelo T Lorenzo, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Alegent Health Care, Immanuel Rehabilitation Center
Consuelo T Lorenzo, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.