eMedicine Specialties > Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation > Rehabilitation Protocols

Burn Rehabilitation

Author: Robert L Sheridan, MD, Assistant Chief of Staff, Chief of Burn Surgery, Shriners Burns Hospital; Associate Professor of Surgery, Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma and Burns, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Jan 26, 2007

Introduction

Until recently, survival was the only gauge of success in managing serious burn cases. More recently, the overriding objective of burn care has become reintegration of the patient into the home and community. This goal has extended the traditional role of the burn care team beyond acute wound closure.

Three broad aspects are involved in this effort: rehabilitation, reconstruction, and reintegration. The importance of early and active focus on long-term rehabilitation goals cannot be overemphasized.

Modern burn care may be divided into the following 4 general phases:

• The first phase, initial evaluation and resuscitation, occurs on days 1-3 and requires an accurate fluid resuscitation and thorough evaluation for other injuries and comorbid conditions.
• The second phase, initial wound excision and biologic closure, includes the maneuver that changes the natural history of the disease. This is accomplished typically by a series of staged operations that are completed during the first few days after injury.
• The third phase, definitive wound closure, involves replacement of temporary wound covers with a definitive cover; there is also closure and acute reconstruction of areas with small surface area but high complexity, such as the face and hands.
• The final stage of care is rehabilitation, reconstruction, and reintegration. Although this begins during the resuscitation period, it becomes time-consuming and involved toward the end of the acute hospital stay.

Treatment Goals And Treatment Planning

Burn rehabilitation is undeniably difficult and time-consuming, but the time spent on outlining short-term and long-term treatment goals and modalities is worthwhile. These goals and daily schedules ideally are posted where the patient and family can review them easily, thereby reinforcing the expectation that the goals be met. Treatment goals and strategies vary, depending on the patient's injury, stage of treatment, age, and comorbidities. Goals range from minimizing loss of range of motion (ROM) in the patient whom is critically ill to establishing a work hardening program in recovered patients.

• In critically ill patients, goals are to limit loss of ROM, reduce edema, and prevent predictable contractures through positioning and splinting. This process generally involves twice-a-day therapy sessions, which take advantage of planned anesthetics to allow more aggressive joint ROM.
• In patients who have recovered from critical illness but still are hospitalized, treatment is much more time-consuming, as well as physically and emotionally demanding of the patient and therapist.
  • Appropriate therapist time must be budgeted.
  • Realistic therapeutic goals, as well as an appropriate plan of care, should be devised by the treatment team, including the patient and family.
  • Prior to hospital discharge, appropriate functional goals for the patient should include the ability to stand, ambulate, feed, and toilet.
  • Regular meetings to discuss progress and a posted daily schedule are appreciated by adults and children.

Acute Rehabilitation In The Critically Ill Burn Patient

To attain the objective of optimal long-term function, rehabilitation efforts must begin at the outset of burn care. Physical and occupational therapists play essential roles in the acute treatment of all burn patients, even in the critically ill and during resuscitation of those with large injuries. The following are the 3 principal priorities for the burn therapist in the acute setting:

• Performing ROM
• Splinting and antideformity positioning
• Establishing a long-term relationship with the patient and family members to ensure compliance with therapy goals and to increase the patient's morale for recovery

If a body part is left immobile for a protracted period of time, capsular contraction and shortening of tendon and muscle groups (which cross the joints) occur. This rapid process (Image 1) can be prevented by a program of passive ROM, antideformity positioning, and splinting.

• Passive ROM is best performed twice daily, with the therapist taking all joints through a full ROM. The therapist must be sensitive to the patient's pain, anxiety, wound status, extremity perfusion, and security of the patient's airway and vascular access devices.
• These procedures should be performed in coordination with the ICU staff. Attention to the security of endotracheal tubes, nasogastric tubes, and arterial and central venous catheters is paramount, as unexpected loss of these devices can contribute to morbidity and mortality.
• Although these procedures are important, they cannot be accomplished effectively (or humanely) if they cause excessive pain and anxiety. Performing ROM often can be timed to coincide with dressing changes and wound cleansing, thereby minimizing the need for medication.
• Proper antideformity positioning minimizes shortening of tendons, collateral ligaments, and joint capsules; it reduces extremity and facial edema. Although splints are used less frequently, there are several predictable contractures that occur in patients with burns that can be prevented by a proper ROM, positioning, and splinting program. These contractures (Image 2) generally are associated with the flexed position of comfort, except in the hands.
• Flexion deformities of the neck can be minimized with thermoplastic neck splints, conformers, and split mattresses. In critically ill patients, positioning the neck in slight extension is often all that can be done. Do not allow the ventilator tubing to pull the head so that a contracture develops; without proper care, a rotary contracture can develop, generally with the patient turned toward the ventilator.
  • Contractures are especially likely to develop if wounds are not closed promptly (Image 3). The speed at which contractures can develop is astonishing, if prevention strategies are not part of routine care.
  • Axillary adduction contractures can be prevented by positioning the shoulders widely abducted with axillary splints, padded hanging troughs of thermoplastic material, or a variety of support devices mounted to the bed.
  • Elbow flexion contractures are minimized by statically splinting the elbow in extension. Elbow splints can be alternated with flexion splints to help retain a full ROM.
  • Flexion contractures of the hips and knees are particularly common in young children but can be prevented by careful positioning and ROM. Prevention of contractures is important even in infants, as these contractures can interfere with subsequent ambulation. Prone positioning, although poorly tolerated by some, can assist in minimizing hip flexion contractures; knee immobilizers can minimize knee flexion contractures.
  • The equinus deformity, in which the ankle is plantar flexed and the foot is in a varus position, is a serious problem that can occur even if the ankles are not burned. This position can be prevented, however, with static splinting of the ankles in the neutral position and performing ROM twice daily. Splints designed for this purpose can cause pressure injury over the metatarsal heads or calcaneus if improperly designed. These injuries can be prevented by using padding to distribute pressure evenly across the metatarsal heads and by extending the footplate of the splint beyond the heel and cutting out the area around the calcaneus (Image 4).

• Inspect all splints at least twice daily for evidence of poor fit or pressure injury; improperly used splints can cause injury. A nursing staff in-service minimizes splint-related skin injury. Positioning affected extremities just above the level of the heart reduces edema, which is another important aspect of antideformity positioning.
• The therapist should articulate his or her role in the critical care team by providing regular communication about problems and progress updates.

Acute Rehabilitation In The Recovering Burn Patient

As critical illness abates and wounds progressively close, the roles of the physical and occupational therapists (as well as the demands on the patient) expand and become more difficult. Patients become more aware of what has happened to them, and they can become fearful of the therapist and the associated potentially uncomfortable procedures.

• The principal components of burn therapy that characterize this period include the following:
  • Continued passive ROM
  • Increasing active ROM and strengthen
  • Minimizing edema
  • ADL training
  • Initial scar management
  • Preparing for work or play or school
• Long-term favorable outcome requires hard work during this period, but it is important for the therapist not to push too hard. An early program of passive ROM greatly facilitates successful retention of normal ROM during this period. Intraoperative ROM also can be useful; in coordination with the operating room team, passive ROM can be performed between induction of anesthesia and preparation of the surgical site. Other maneuvers that can be used to increase the patient's tolerance for passive ROM include the following:
  • Timing of the ROM session with medication for dressing changes
  • Administration of opiates or benzodiazepines
  • Gentle conversation and encouragement
  • An unhurried approach to therapy sessions
• Burned and grafted extremities commonly have lingering edema that can contribute to joint stiffness. Reducing this edema facilitates rehabilitation efforts.
  • The use of custom-fitted elastic garments this early after injury is expensive, as they frequently need to be downsized as the edema resolves; however, simply wrapping the fingers with self-adherent elastic helps reduce digital edema. Tubular elastic dressings, elastic wrap dressings, elevation, and retrograde massage also help reduce extremity edema.
  • Topical silicone may have a favorable influence on selected evolving hypertrophic scars.
• As definitive wound closure nears and hospital discharge approaches, the focus of rehabilitation efforts becomes practical. Performance of ADL tasks and the impending return to play/school/work are important considerations.
  • Resisted ROM, isometric exercises, active strengthening, and gait training are important objectives.
  • When treating children, it is important to use developmentally appropriate play to facilitate rehabilitation goals. For example, children with serious hand burns are ideally engaged in play that requires the use of their hands at a motor level that is consistent with their development.

• For many burn patients, the first 18 months after discharge are more difficult than the acute stay. The principal rehabilitation goals at this time include the following:
  • Progressive ROM and strengthening
  • Evaluation of evolving problem areas
  • Specific postoperative therapy after reconstructive operations
  • Scar management

• Ideally, the same therapist who worked with the patient during the acute inpatient hospitalization continues through the outpatient setting. Not only does this continuity enhance the patient's experience, but also it helps the therapist monitor burn recovery. If, for reasons of distance or managed care, it is not possible to maintain this relationship, regular contact at each clinic visit back at the burn unit can achieve this goal indirectly.
• Unfortunately, it is not uncommon for ROM and strength to be lost during the first months after discharge. This is particularly true if there is inadequate outpatient rehabilitation (eg, inexperienced therapist). The burn unit team should monitor the quality of outpatient rehabilitation services during routine clinic visits at the burn unit. If the patient is losing substantial ROM and strength due to inadequate therapy, readmission for focused rehabilitation efforts is appropriate.
  • The realities of distance, transportation, and managed care often cause patients to work with inexperienced therapists. Therapists should visit the burn unit prior to the patient's discharge, videotape therapy sessions (with the patient's written permission), and maintain frequent telephone contact. Family education and involvement with rehabilitation plans may facilitate early identification of evolving problems and rectify rehabilitation efforts.
  • Burn therapists play a central role in planning and performing reconstructive procedures in the months and years after acute discharge. They help to identify needed operations, plan sequencing of operations, and educate patients and families about perioperative care. Planning appropriate postoperative rehabilitation activities helps patients optimize surgical outcome.

Rehabilitation concerns for burns of the upper and lower extremities

• Upper extremity
  • High-quality acute burn care minimizes early upper extremity reconstructive needs, but problems regularly occur. Perhaps the most common upper extremity deformities are dorsal hand and web space contractures.
    • Dorsal hand contractures are prevented ideally by attention to proper positioning presurgically and postsurgically. If the initial excision was performed tangentially rather than at the level of the fascia (ie, there is some remnant dorsal subcutaneous fat), the release is likely to slide and accept a large piece of skin (Image 5). The release must result in a resistance-free complete ROM of the metacarpophalangeal joints.
    • Although web space contractures are common deformities that require correction, they can be minimized by proper early surgery and compressive gloves supplemented with web space conformers. In the normal web space, the leading edge of the volar aspect of the web is distal to the dorsal aspect; in the typical dorsal web space contracture, this pattern is reversed (the syndactyly is usually a dorsal deformity). When severe (ie, limiting digital abduction), it should be corrected. The typically normal leading palmar edge of the web space must not be compromised.
  • Very deep burns of the elbow are associated commonly with a difficulty in maintaining a complete ROM. Normal elbow ROM is required for performance of ADL such as feeding and toileting.
    • Limited elbow extension is commonly a volar soft tissue issue that responds to simple release; however, heterotopic ossification (ie, when bone forms in the soft tissues around the triceps tendon and interferes with elbow motion, Image 6) also may contribute. Be sure to exclude it.
    • Limited elbow extension is a mechanical problem in which the ROM of the elbow joint is compromised when components of the joint abut the abnormal bone.
    • Restricted elbow extension may resolve spontaneously over the course of years, but it should be treated surgically if it interferes significantly with recovery. A careful dissection is required. The bone is removed so that the elbow joint is not blocked; it is important to visualize and protect the ulnar nerve during this dissection.
  • Axillary contracture is not uncommon and can interfere with important upper extremity functions (eg, feeding). Axillary release should encompass the entire rotational axis of the shoulder to facilitate complete ROM; the defect is closed with sheet autograft. Postoperatively, abduction splints should maximize the ROM without creating traction or pressure on the brachial plexus or vessels.
• Lower extremity
  • Patients who have been supine for protracted periods often tolerate immediate upright positioning poorly. Prior to initial efforts at assisted standing, such patients benefit from tilt table training and graduated sitting. Lower extremity edema, which can hinder recovery, is prevented best by using gentle elastic wraps prior to placing the patient in an upright position.
  • The most common lower extremity deformities that require correction in patients who have sustained burns are dorsal foot extension contractures, popliteal flexion contractures, and hip flexion contractures. The latter 2 are particularly common in infants and very young children; they spend long periods of time with the hips and knees flexed and are particularly difficult to splint and range.
  • A deep dorsal foot burn may result in a contracture of the metatarsophalangeal joints, so that the toes are brought off the ground, causing the patient to have an abnormal gait. When the abnormal gait is severe enough to interfere with ambulation, surgery is required. An incisional release accepts a large piece of split thickness skin, particularly if the initial operation was performed in a layered fashion so that viable subcutaneous fat remains.
  • Flexion contractures of the popliteal fossa also interfere with ambulation. Correction generally requires incisional release and grafting with directed postoperative efforts to maintain knee extension. Avoiding injury to the relatively superficial underlying neurovascular structures of the popliteal fossa is important.
  • Flexion contractures at the hips are common in infants and very young children who spend little time with the hips in extension. The contracted position of comfort is with the hip in flexion. This deformity interferes with ambulation and should be addressed early in recovery. Avoid injury to the femoral vessels and nerve, as the overlying contracted tissues may distort the normal anatomy.

Scar Management

Hypertrophic scarring is a difficult problem for burn patients (Image 7), and scar management is an essential aspect of outpatient burn therapy. Perhaps the most virulent hypertrophic scarring is seen in deep dermal burns that heal spontaneously in 3 or more weeks; this seems especially true in areas of highly elastic skin (eg, the lower face, submental triangle, anterior chest and neck). The wound hyperemia seen universally following burn wound healing should begin to resolve about 9 weeks after epithelialization. In wounds destined to become hypertrophic, increased neovascularization occurs with increasing (rather than decreasing) erythema after 9 weeks.

Available tools to modify the progression of hypertrophic scar formation are limited in number and effectiveness. These tools include scar massage, compression garments, topical silicone, steroid injections, and surgery. In some contractures over major joints, serial casting may be useful.

• Conscientious scar massage can be effective in limited areas of scarring, and it is convenient since it can be performed by family members. Ideally, this technique is performed several times each day. Bland moisturizers, which minimize drying of recently healed burns and skin grafts, are applied (Image 8). Evolving hypertrophic areas then are massaged in a firm and slow manner.
• Despite the controversy over its use, compression garments seem to improve control of broad areas of hypertrophic scarring, particularly in young children in whom this process seems to be more severe.
  • Compression garments should be worn 23 hours a day until wound erythema begins to abate, usually about 12-18 months after injury.
  • In growing and young children, frequent refitting and replacement of compression garments are required. Garment fit must be verified after manufacture, as a poorly fitting garment is less effective and can be uncomfortable.

• Topical silicone, applied to the healed wound as a sheet, is effective when applied to small areas of a troublesome hypertrophic scar.
  • Having the silicone in place 24 hours a day is ideal, except during bathing.
  • Some children develop a rash beneath the topical silicone, but this rash quickly resolves with removal of the silicone; in these patients, 12-hour or every-other-day application seems to help.
  • Silicone sheets can be placed beneath compression garments or can be held in place by one of several elastic devices.
  • Firm pressure is not required for the silicone to be effective.
• For only localized and very symptomatic areas of early hypertrophic scars, especially if they are in highly cosmetic locations or are causing extreme pruritus, direct steroid injections can be useful (Image 9).
  • Limit the total dose so that systemic effects do not occur.
  • These injections are painful, as they require high pressure to infiltrate the dense hypertrophic scars; in children, general anesthesia usually is required.
  • Only localized and very symptomatic areas are treated in this fashion.
  • Extreme pruritus is a frequent part of burn wound healing.
    • Pruritus typically begins shortly after the wound has healed, peaks in intensity 4-6 months after injury, and then gradually subsides in most patients. It can be especially troubling at night.
    • In most patients, it is adequately treated with massage, moisturizers, and oral antihistamines at night. Alternative approaches are available, although none works reliably for everyone.
    • In patients particularly troubled by pruritus, a sequential therapeutic trial of each maneuver often identifies one particularly helpful method: topical creams containing vitamin E, topical antihistamine creams, topical cold compresses, frequent application of moisturizing creams, or colloidal baths.
    • Localized highly pruritic scars often respond to a steroid injection.
    • In rare cases, pruritus becomes so intense that excoriations develop.
    • These wounds can become superinfected with Staphylococcus aureus, which further exacerbates the pruritus.
    • To allow healing of excoriated areas, some patients require admission for wound care and antibiotics to control the pruritus and infection.
    • Burn wound pruritus is a difficult but usually self-limited problem that begs for an effective solution.
• Surgical excision or incision and autografting are useful maneuvers when other scar management tools are ineffective.

Acute Reconstruction

Proper acute burn care minimizes the need for burn reconstruction. Even in optimal circumstances, a predictable set of reconstructive operations commonly is required during the first postinjury years. A reconstructive plan is made best collaboratively with the patient and family, the patient's burn therapist, and the surgeon. One should not rush these procedures; however, waiting until all scars have matured completely for over 2 years prior to embarking on any reconstructive operations may prolong recovery unnecessarily.

The physical and emotional trauma of surgery must be balanced against the patient's functional and cosmetic needs. These plans are never easy to develop and must be considered carefully and individualized. Imagination and patience are important components of planning staged burn reconstruction.

Most burn reconstructive procedures can be performed using a combination of some basic techniques: incisional release and grafting, excisional release and grafting, Z-plasty, and random flaps. Tissue expansion and free flaps are needed less commonly, but they can be useful in selected patients.

• Incisional versus excisional release
  • Most burn reconstructive operations can be effective with an incisional, excisional, or the common combined release, closing the resulting wound with split thickness autograft (Image 10). The contracture is placed under tension, and the release is performed sharply.
  • Adjacent areas of hypertrophic scar can be excised if donor sites are adequate to close the larger wound. Full-thickness skin grafts are less likely to contract than thin split-thickness grafts; the former is the closure of choice in selected circumstances such as flexion contractures of the digits. Full-thickness graft site availability generally is more limited than split-thickness, and thicker split-thickness grafts are adequate in most situations.
• Z-plasty in burn reconstruction
  • Although simple in concept, properly planned and executed Z-plasties are powerful reconstructive tools.
  • The basic steps involved in constructing a Z-plasty include the following:
    • Defining the line(s) of tension that need to be modified
    • Planning the central limb of the Z-plasty(s) on this line
    • Designing the lateral lines, if possible, so that they fall along natural skin lines (Langer lines) after transposition
    • Designing the angle between the central and lateral lines of the Z-plasty to be less than 90° with the lateral limbs curved and no longer than the central limb
  • Within these limits, infinite variety is possible by modifying the blood supply of flaps and local tissue elasticity.
    • A 5-flap Z-plasty can be constructed by placing 2 Z-plasties along the same band, oriented so that they are mirror images of one another. This results in a fifth "dog-ear" flap that can be inset to insert additional elastic tissue into the band.
    • Multiple Z-plasties can be used in series along a band for excellent effect.
    • The utility of the Z-plasty is limited more by the surgeon's imagination than the elasticity of adjacent available tissues.
  • Tissue expanders and flaps in burn reconstruction
    • Local flaps, tissue expanders, and free flaps have a more limited but important role in burn reconstruction. Thin random flaps can be raised on the chest wall to cover small fourth-degree wounds of the hands in selected cases; the flap is divided at 3 weeks.
    • More commonly used are groin flaps, which have earned an important role in reconstructing defects, particularly volar wrist defects associated with high-voltage electrical injury.
    • Tissue expanders are useful, particularly in the head and neck.
    • Perhaps most useful are tissue expanders to correct burn-associated alopecia. Like tissue expanders, free flaps offer an important option in selected, difficult wounds (eg, those associated with high-voltage injury and extensive soft tissue loss of the distal lower extremity).
    • In most patients, few reconstructive procedures are necessary during the first year after injury. Usual exceptions are any contractures that limit the ability to perform ADL. Any contracture around the mouth or the neck that makes airway access difficult assumes a high priority in early reconstruction (Image 10).

Psychiatric Aspects Of Recovery

The patient's attitude and motivation are powerful factors that affect burn rehabilitation. Because these elements are commonly more important than the physical injury itself, all members of the burn team can and should provide this type of support.

Various authors have described the following 3 basic stages of burn recovery, each with unique psychologic implications:

• Critical illness stage of recovery
  • Survival often is in doubt, and immediate psychiatric issues dominate, including anxiety, fear, pain, delirium, sleep deprivation, and confusion.
  • These problems ideally are addressed by the ICU team and psychiatric consultants.

• Acute recovery phase of care
  • Patients enter this phase after survival is assured and the intensities of surgery and intensive care diminish.
  • This phase typically encompasses the noncritical remainder of the acute hospitalization and is characterized by intensive physical and occupational therapy, fewer smaller surgical procedures, and a growing awareness of the injuries impact and long-term implications.
  • Patients often become depressed, and up to 30% experience symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (eg, hyperarousal, fearfulness, sleep disturbances). Focused pharmacotherapy and individual counseling can be helpful.

• The final stage of psychological recovery encompasses the 1-2 years after initial hospital discharge.
  • This time is often emotionally difficult, as patients adjust to new limitations at home and at work while experiencing waning PTSD symptoms.
  • Moderate depression can be expected in many patients, and these problems can be magnified if optimal recovery potential has not been reached because of inexpert therapy.
  • Recovery can be facilitated by a long-term therapeutic relationship. In many patients, participating in peer support groups is beneficial. One example is the Phoenix Society.

Attitude and psychological well-being play powerful roles (either helpful or destructive) in physical recovery. The importance of understanding this concept cannot be overemphasized. Every member of the burn team can have a strong and favorable impact by considering these 2 factors during day-to-day patient interactions.

Reintegration And Conclusions

The ultimate goal of all burn care is reintegration of the patient into society, and it is important not to lose sight of this goal. A few years ago, the goal of the burn team was survival of the patient; discharge was the measurement of success. Burn care, however, does not stop with wound closure.

• PTSD is common in burn patients, so be vigilant of symptoms (eg, hyperalertness, nightmares, chronic fearfulness). Ignoring this common problem compromises recovery.
• Ideally, patients return to their families, schoolmates, and communities as if the injury had never occurred. Consider this goal when planning the timing and type of reconstructive operations.
• The stress on families of burn patients is enormous. Family counseling and support services are important. Any help afforded to these families indirectly can aid the patient!
• Rehabilitation and reconstruction of the seriously burned patient is part of acute care. A burn intensive care unit with a separate reconstructive surgery unit does not offer optimal care. As currently defined, successful burn care requires commitment by a focused multidisciplinary team over the continuum of care from resuscitation through reconstruction, rehabilitation, and reintegration.

Multimedia

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Media file 1: Contractures develop rapidly in patients with burns if proper range of motion and splinting are not performed from the outset of acute care.

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Media file 2: The set of predictable burn contractures can be minimized through focused and early intervention.

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Media file 3: If wounds are not closed promptly, contractures can occur rapidly.

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Media file 4: Pressure to the calcaneus can be prevented by extending the footplate of the splint beyond the heel and cutting out the area around the calcaneus.

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Media file 5: Successful release of a dorsal hand contracture substantially improves hand function. Do not delay this procedure because it is functionally significant.

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Media file 6: Heterotopic ossification may contribute to limited elbow motion and should be excluded by plain radiographs. This condition most commonly presents when bone forms in the soft tissues around the triceps tendon.

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Media file 7: Despite its ubiquity, the physiology of hypertrophic scar is not understood. Perhaps the most virulent hypertrophic scarring is seen in deep dermal burns that heal spontaneously over the course of 3 or more weeks, particularly in highly elastic skin (eg, the lower face, submental triangle, anterior neck, chest).

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Media file 8: Scar massage optimally is performed several times each day. Use firm slow pressure on evolving hypertrophic areas after applying bland skin emollients.

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Media file 9: Steroid injections directly into localized early hypertrophic scars can be useful, especially in highly cosmetic locations or in those that cause extreme pruritus.

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Media file 10: Most burn deformities can be corrected with release and grafting procedures. Any contracture around the mouth or the neck that makes airway access difficult assumes a high priority in early reconstruction.

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Media file 11:

Keywords

burn rehabilitation, burns, burn injury, burn recovery, scar therapy, burn scars, first-degree burns, second-degree burns, third-degree burns, traumatic burn injury, burn care, burn injuries

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