Osteoporosis and Spinal Cord Injury: Multimedia

References

1. Garland DE, Stewart CA, Adkins RH, et al. Osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. J Orthop Res. May 1992;10(3):371-8. [Medline].

2. Jiang SD, Jiang LS, Dai LY. Effects of spinal cord injury on osteoblastogenesis, osteoclastogenesis and gene expression profiling in osteoblasts in young rats. Osteoporos Int. Mar 2007;18(3):339-49. [Medline].

3. Yilmaz B, Yasar E, Goktepe AS, et al. The relationship between basal metabolic rate and femur bone mineral density in men with traumatic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Jun 2007;88(6):758-61. [Medline].

4. Kaplan PE, Roden W, Gilbert E, et al. Reduction of hypercalciuria in tetraplegia after weight-bearing and strengthening exercises. Paraplegia. 1981;19(5):289-93. [Medline].

5. Stewart AF, Adler M, Byers CM, et al. Calcium homeostasis in immobilization: an example of resorptive hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med. May 13 1982;306(19):1136-40. [Medline].

6. Chantraine A, Heynen G, Franchimont P. Bone metabolism, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin in paraplegia. Calcif Tissue Int. Jul 3 1979;27(3):199-204. [Medline].

7. Claus-Walker J, Carter RE, Compos RJ, et al. Hypercalcemia in early traumatic quadriplegia. J Chronic Dis. Feb 1975;28(2):81-90. [Medline].

8. Merli GJ, McElwain GE, Adler AG, et al. Immobilization hypercalcemia in acute spinal cord injury treated with etidronate. Arch Intern Med. Jun 1984;144(6):1286-8. [Medline].

9. Garland DE, Maric Z. Bone mineral density about the knee in spinal cord injured patients with pathologic fractures. Contemp Orthop. 1993;26:375-9.

10. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Kushwaha V, et al. Risk factors for osteoporosis at the knee in the spinal cord injury population. J Spinal Cord Med. 2004;27(3):202-6. [Medline].

11. Reiter AL, Volk A, Vollmar J, et al. Changes of basic bone turnover parameters in short-term and long-term patients with spinal cord injury. Eur Spine J. Jun 2007;16(6):771-6. [Medline].

12. Szollar SM, Martin EM, Sartoris DJ, et al. Bone mineral density and indexes of bone metabolism in spinal cord injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Jan-Feb 1998;77(1):28-35. [Medline].

13. Maïmoun L, Couret I, Mariano-Goulart D, et al. Changes in osteoprotegerin/RANKL system, bone mineral density, and bone biochemicals markers in patients with recent spinal cord injury. Calcif Tissue Int. Jun 2005;76(6):404-11. [Medline].

14. Maïmoun L, Couret I, Micallef JP, et al. Use of bone biochemical markers with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for early determination of bone loss in persons with spinal cord injury. Metabolism. Aug 2002;51(8):958-63. [Medline].

15. Liu CC, Theodorou DJ, Theodorou SJ, et al. Quantitative computed tomography in the evaluation of spinal osteoporosis following spinal cord injury. Osteoporos Int. 2000;11(10):889-96. [Medline].

16. Sabo D, Blaich S, Wenz W, et al. Osteoporosis in patients with paralysis after spinal cord injury. A cross sectional study in 46 male patients with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2001;121(1-2):75-8. [Medline].

17. BeDell KK, Scremin AM, Perell KL, et al. Effects of functional electrical stimulation-induced lower extremity cycling on bone density of spinal cord-injured patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Jan-Feb 1996;75(1):29-34. [Medline].

18. Chen SC, Lai CH, Chan WP, et al. Increases in bone mineral density after functional electrical stimulation cycling exercises in spinal cord injured patients. Disabil Rehabil. Nov 30 2005;27(22):1337-41. [Medline].

19. Eser P, de Bruin ED, Telley I, et al. Effect of electrical stimulation-induced cycling on bone mineral density in spinal cord-injured patients. Eur J Clin Invest. May 2003;33(5):412-9. [Medline].

20. de Bruin ED, Frey-Rindova P, Herzog RE, et al. Changes of tibia bone properties after spinal cord injury: effects of early intervention. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Feb 1999;80(2):214-20. [Medline].

21. Needham-Shropshire BM, Broton JG, Klose KJ. Evaluation of a training program for persons with SCI paraplegia using the Parastep 1 ambulation system: part 3. Lack of effect on bone mineral density. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Aug 1997;78(8):799-803. [Medline].

22. Leeds EM, Klose KJ, Ganz W, et al. Bone mineral density after bicycle ergometry training. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Mar 1990;71(3):207-9. [Medline].

23. Moran de Brito CM, Battistella LR, Saito ET, et al. Effect of alendronate on bone mineral density in spinal cord injury patients: a pilot study. Spinal Cord. Jun 2005;43(6):341-8. [Medline].

24. Pearson EG, Nance PW, Leslie WD, et al. Cyclical etidronate: its effect on bone density in patients with acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Mar 1997;78(3):269-72. [Medline].

25. Sniger W, Garshick E. Alendronate increases bone density in chronic spinal cord injury: a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Jan 2002;83(1):139-40. [Medline].

26. Gilchrist NL, Frampton CM, Acland RH, et al. Alendronate prevents bone loss in patients with acute spinal cord injury: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Apr 2007;92(4):1385-90. [Medline].

27. Minaire P, Depassio J, Berard E, et al. Effects of clodronate on immobilization bone loss. Bone. 1987;8 Suppl 1:S63-8. [Medline].

28. Nance PW, Schryvers O, Leslie W, et al. Intravenous pamidronate attenuates bone density loss after acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Mar 1999;80(3):243-51. [Medline].

29. Albright F, Burnett CH, Cope O. Acute atrophy of bone (osteoporosis) simulating hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrin Metab. 1941;1:711-6.

30. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Wang J, et al. Continuous loss of bone during chronic immobilization: a monozygotic twin study. Osteoporos Int. 1999;10(2):123-7. [Medline].

31. Bauman WA, Wecht JM, Kirshblum S, et al. Effect of pamidronate administration on bone in patients with acute spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Res Dev. May-Jun 2005;42(3):305-13. [Medline].

32. Bauman WA, Zhong YG, Schwartz E. Vitamin D deficiency in veterans with chronic spinal cord injury. Metabolism. Dec 1995;44(12):1612-6. [Medline].

33. Bergmann P, Heilporn A, Schoutens A, et al. Longitudinal study of calcium and bone metabolism in paraplegic patients. Paraplegia. Aug 1977;15(2):147-59. [Medline].

34. Biering-Sorensen F, Bohr H, Schaadt O, et al. Bone mineral content of the lumbar spine and lower extremities years after spinal cord lesion. Paraplegia. Oct 1988;26(5):293-301. [Medline].

35. Comarr AE, Hutchinson RH, Bors E. Extremity fractures of patients with spinal cord injuries. Am J Surg. Jun 1962;103:732-9. [Medline].

36. Dauty M, Perrouin Verbe B, Maugars Y, et al. Supralesional and sublesional bone mineral density in spinal cord-injured patients. Bone. Aug 2000;27(2):305-9. [Medline].

37. Demirel G, Yilmaz H, Paker N, et al. Osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. Dec 1998;36(12):822-5. [Medline].

38. Dionyssiotis Y, Trovas G, Galanos A, et al. Bone loss and mechanical properties of tibia in spinal cord injured men. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. Jan-Mar 2007;7(1):62-8. [Medline].

39. Eichenholtz SN. Management of long bone fractures in paraplegic patients. J Bone Joint Surg. 1963;45(2):299-310.

40. Freehafer AA, Hazel CM, Becker CL. Lower extremity fractures in patients with spinal cord injury. Paraplegia. 1981;19(6):367-72. [Medline].

41. Freehafer AA, Mast WA. Lower extremity fractures in patients with spinal-cord injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am. Jun 1965;47:683-94. [Medline].

42. Frisbie JH. Fractures after myelopathy: the risk quantified. J Spinal Cord Med. Jan 1997;20(1):66-9. [Medline].

43. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Rah A. Bone loss with aging and the impact of spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2001;6(3):47-60.

44. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Stewart CA. Fracture threshold and risk for osteoporosis and pathologic fractures in individuals with spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 1995;11:61-9.

45. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Stewart CA. Regional osteoporosis in women who have a complete spinal cord injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am. Aug 2001;83-A(8):1195-200. [Medline].

46. Garland DE, Foulkes GD, Adkins RH. Regional osteoporosis following incomplete spinal cord injury. Contemp Orthop. 1994;28:134-9.

47. Goktepe AS, Yilmaz B, Alaca R, et al. Bone density loss after spinal cord injury: elite paraplegic basketball players vs. paraplegic sedentary persons. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Apr 2004;83(4):279-83. [Medline].

48. Hangartner TN. Osteoporosis due to disuse. Phys Med Rehabil Clin North Am. 1995;6(3):579-93.

49. Jiang SD, Dai LY, Jiang LS. Osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. Osteoporos Int. Feb 2006;17(2):180-92. [Medline].

50. Jiang SD, Jiang LS, Dai LY. Spinal cord injury causes more damage to bone mass, bone structure, biomechanical properties and bone metabolism than sciatic neurectomy in young rats. Osteoporos Int. Oct 2006;17(10):1552-61. [Medline].

51. Jones LM, Legge M, Goulding A. Intensive exercise may preserve bone mass of the upper limbs in spinal cord injured males but does not retard demineralisation of the lower body. Spinal Cord. May 2002;40(5):230-5. [Medline]. [Full Text].

52. Kiratli BJ, Smith AE, Nauenberg T, et al. Bone mineral and geometric changes through the femur with immobilization due to spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Res Dev. Mar-Apr 2000;37(2):225-33. [Medline].

53. Kirshblum S, Druin E, Phanteen K. Musculoskeletal conditions in chronic spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehab. 1997;2(4):23-35.

54. Kunkel CF, Scremin AM, Eisenberg B, et al. Effect of "standing" on spasticity, contracture, and osteoporosis in paralyzed males. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Jan 1993;74(1):73-8. [Medline].

55. Leslie WD, Nance PW. Dissociated hip and spine demineralization: a specific finding in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Sep 1993;74(9):960-4. [Medline].

56. Pietschmann P, Pils P, Woloszczuk W, et al. Increased serum osteocalcin levels in patients with paraplegia. Paraplegia. Mar 1992;30(3):204-9. [Medline].

57. Ragnarsson KT, Sell GH. Lower extremity fractures after spinal cord injury: a retrospective study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Sep 1981;62(9):418-23. [Medline].

58. Roberts D, Lee W, Cuneo RC, et al. Longitudinal study of bone turnover after acute spinal cord injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. Feb 1998;83(2):415-22. [Medline]. [Full Text].

59. Shields RK, Dudley-Javoroski S. Musculoskeletal plasticity after acute spinal cord injury: effects of long-term neuromuscular electrical stimulation training. J Neurophysiol. Apr 2006;95(4):2380-90. [Medline]. [Full Text].

60. Shojaei H, Soroush MR, Modirian E. Spinal cord injury-induced osteoporosis in veterans. J Spinal Disord Tech. Apr 2006;19(2):114-7. [Medline].

61. Staas WE, Formal CS, Freedman MK. Spinal cord injury and spinal cord injury medicine. In: DeLisa JA, Gans BM, eds. Rehabilitation Medicine: Principles and Practice. 3^rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven; 1998:1259-91.

Further Reading

Keywords

spinal cord injury, osteoporosis, osteoporosis and SCI, SCI-induced osteoporosis, functional electrical stimulation, FES, dual-energy radiographic absorptiometry scan, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan, DRA, DXA

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

David Weiss, MD, Medical Director of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Assistant Professor, Internal Medicine, Marianjoy Medical Group
David Weiss, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American College of Sports Medicine, Association of Academic Physiatrists, and Physiatric Association of Spine, Sports and Occupational Rehabilitation
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Rajesh R Yadav, MD, Assistant Professor, Section of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas at Houston
Rajesh R Yadav, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Managing Editor

Patrick M Foye, MD, FAAPMR, FAAEM, Associate Professor of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Co-Director of Musculoskeletal Fellowship, Co-Director of Back Pain Clinic, Director of Coccyx Pain (Tailbone Pain, Coccydynia) Service, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School
Patrick M Foye, MD, FAAPMR, FAAEM is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, Association of Academic Physiatrists, and International Spine Intervention Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Kelly L Allen, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Lourdes Regional Rehabilitation Center, Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Denise I Campagnolo, MD, MS, Director of Multiple Sclerosis Clinical Research and Staff Physiatrist, Barrow Neurology Clinics, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center; Investigator for Barrow Neurology Clinics; Director, NARCOMS Project for Consortium of MS Centers, Phoenix
Denise I Campagnolo, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Paraplegia Society, Association of Academic Physiatrists, and Consortium of Multiple Sclerosis Centers
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.