Giant Cell Arteritis Differential Diagnoses
- Author: Mythili Seetharaman, MD; Chief Editor: Herbert S Diamond, MD more...
Differential Diagnoses
- Atherosclerosis
- Atherosclerotic Disease of the Carotid Artery
- Cluster headache
- Fever of Unknown Origin
- Granulomatous angiitis of the CNS
- Migraine headache
- Polymyalgia rheumatica
- Rheumatoid Arthritis
- Takayasu Arteritis
- Trigeminal neuralgia
- Wegener Granulomatosis
Hunder GG. The early history of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: first descriptions to 1970. Mayo Clin Proc. Aug 2006;81(8):1071-83. [Medline].
Barber HS. Myalgic syndrome with constitutional effects; polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Rheum Dis. Jun 1957;16(2):230-7. [Medline].
Cid MC, Cebrian M, Font C, et al. Cell adhesion molecules in the development of inflammatory infiltrates in giant cell arteritis: inflammation-induced angiogenesis as the preferential site of leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions. Arthritis Rheum. Jan 2000;43(1):184-94. [Medline].
Maugeri N, Baldini M, Rovere-Querini P, Maseri A, Sabbadini MG, Manfredi AA. Leukocyte and platelet activation in patients with giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a clue to thromboembolic risks?. Autoimmunity. May 2009;42(4):386-8. [Medline].
Goodwin JS. Progress in gerontology: polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis. J Am Geriatr Soc. May 1992;40(5):515-25. [Medline].
Palomino-Morales R, Torres O, Vazquez-Rodriguez TR, Morado IC, Castañeda S, Callejas-Rubio JL, et al. Association between toll-like receptor 4 gene polymorphism and biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis. J Rheumatol. Jul 2009;36(7):1501-6. [Medline].
Salvarani C, Gabriel SE, O'Fallon WM, Hunder GG. The incidence of giant cell arteritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota: apparent fluctuations in a cyclic pattern. Ann Intern Med. Aug 1 1995;123(3):192-4. [Medline].
Smeeth L, Cook C, Hall AJ. Incidence of diagnosed polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis in the United Kingdom, 1990-2001. Ann Rheum Dis. Aug 2006;65(8):1093-8. [Medline].
Bosley TM, Riley FC. Giant cell arteritis in Saudi Arabia. Int Ophthalmol. 1998;22(1):59-60. [Medline].
González-Gay MA, García-Porrúa C, Llorca J, Hajeer AH, Brañas F, Dababneh A, et al. Visual manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Trends and clinical spectrum in 161 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). Sep 2000;79(5):283-92. [Medline].
Ninan J, Nguyen AM, Cole A, Rischmueller M, Dodd T, Roberts-Thomson P, et al. Mortality in Patients with Biopsy-proven Giant Cell Arteritis: A South Australian Population-based Study. J Rheumatol. Oct 2011;38(10):2215-7. [Medline].
Liu NH, LaBree LD, Feldon SE, Rao NA. The epidemiology of giant cell arteritis : a 12-year retrospective study. Ophthalmology. Jun 2001;108(6):1145-9. [Medline].
Lopez-Diaz MJ, Llorca J, Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Peña-Sagredo JL, Martin J, Gonzalez-Gay MA. Implication of the age in the clinical spectrum of giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. May-Jun 2008;26(3 Suppl 49):S16-22. [Medline].
Hunder GG, Bloch DA, Michel BA, Stevens MB, Arend WP, Calabrese LH, et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. Aug 1990;33(8):1122-8. [Medline].
Tsianakas A, Ehrchen JM, Presser D, Fischer T, Kruse-Loesler B, Luger TA, et al. Scalp necrosis in giant cell arteritis: case report and review of the relevance of this cutaneous sign of large-vessel vasculitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. Oct 2009;61(4):701-6. [Medline].
Mucke T, Kesting MR, Holzle F, Wolff KD. Uncommon presentation of giant cell arteritis: report of two cases with scalp necrosis. Neurol India. Jan-Feb 2009;57(1):61-2. [Medline].
Brodmann M, Dorr A, Hafner F, Gary T, Pilger E. Tongue necrosis as first symptom of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Clin Rheumatol. Jun 2009;28 Suppl 1:S47-9. [Medline].
Cid MC, Garcia-Martinez A, Lozano E, et al. Five clinical conundrums in the management of giant cell arteritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. Nov 2007;33(4):819-34, vii. [Medline].
Kermani TA, Warrington KJ. Lower extremity vasculitis in polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. Jan 2011;23(1):38-42. [Medline].
Maksimowicz-McKinnon K, Clark TM, Hoffman GS. Takayasu arteritis and giant cell arteritis: a spectrum within the same disease?. Medicine (Baltimore). Jul 2009;88(4):221-6. [Medline].
Liang GC, Simkin PA, Hunder GG, et al. Familial aggregation of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. Jan-Feb 1974;17(1):19-24. [Medline].
Russo MG, Waxman J, Abdoh AA, Serebro LH. Correlation between infection and the onset of the giant cell (temporal) arteritis syndrome. A trigger mechanism?. Arthritis Rheum. Mar 1995;38(3):374-80. [Medline].
Wise CM, Agudelo CA, Chmelewski WL, McKnight KM. Temporal arteritis with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: a review of five cases. Arthritis Rheum. Dec 1991;34(12):1571-4. [Medline].
Salvarani C, Hunder GG. Giant cell arteritis with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: frequency of occurence in a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. Apr 2001;45(2):140-5. [Medline].
Lopez-Diaz MJ, Llorca J, Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Peña-Sagredo JL, Martin J, Gonzalez-Gay MA. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is associated with the development of visual complications in biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. Oct 2008;38(2):116-23. [Medline].
Gonzalez-Gay MA, Lopez-Diaz MJ, Barros S, Garcia-Porrua C, Sanchez-Andrade A, Paz-Carreira J, et al. Giant cell arteritis: laboratory tests at the time of diagnosis in a series of 240 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). Sep 2005;84(5):277-90. [Medline].
Schmidt WA, Kraft HE, Vorpahl K, et al. Color duplex ultrasonography in the diagnosis of temporal arteritis. N Engl J Med. Nov 6 1997;337(19):1336-42. [Medline].
Koenigkam-Santos M, Sharma P, Kalb B, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography in extracranial giant cell arteritis. J Clin Rheumatol. Sep 2011;17(6):306-10. [Medline].
Szmodis ML, Reba RC, Earl-Graef D. Positron emission tomography in the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Headache. Sep 2007;47(8):1216-9. [Medline].
Meliconi R, Pulsatelli L, Uguccioni M, et al. Leukocyte infiltration in synovial tissue from the shoulder of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Quantitative analysis and influence of corticosteroid treatment. Arthritis Rheum. Jul 1996;39(7):1199-207. [Medline].
Marí B, Monteagudo M, Bustamante E, Pérez J, Casanovas A, Jordana R, et al. Analysis of temporal artery biopsies in an 18-year period at a community hospital. Eur J Intern Med. Sep 2009;20(5):533-6. [Medline].
Murchison AP, Bilyk JR, Eagle RC, et al. Shrinkage Revisited: How Long Is Long Enough?. Ophth Plas & Reconstructive Surg. May 2012 21;epub ahead of print.
Boyev LR, Miller NR, Green WR. Efficacy of unilateral versus bilateral temporal artery biopsies for the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. Am J Ophthalmol. Aug 1999;128(2):211-5. [Medline].
Hall JK, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL, Liu GT, Syed NA, Balcer LJ. The role of unilateral temporal artery biopsy. Ophthalmology. Mar 2003;110(3):543-8; discussion 548. [Medline].
Lenton J, Donnelly R, Nash JR. Does temporal artery biopsy influence the management of temporal arteritis?. QJM. Jan 2006;99(1):33-6. [Medline].
Mahr AD, Jover JA, Spiera RF, Hernández-García C, Fernández-Gutiérrez B, Lavalley MP, et al. Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. Aug 2007;56(8):2789-97. [Medline].
De Silva M, Hazleman BL. Azathioprine in giant cell arteritis/polymyalgia rheumatica: a double-blind study. Ann Rheum Dis. Feb 1986;45(2):136-8. [Medline].
Hoffman GS, Cid MC, Hellmann DB, Guillevin L, Stone JH, Schousboe J, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of adjuvant methotrexate treatment for giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. May 2002;46(5):1309-18. [Medline].
Caporali R, Cimmino MA, Ferraccioli G, Gerli R, Klersy C, Salvarani C, et al. Prednisone plus methotrexate for polymyalgia rheumatica: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. Oct 5 2004;141(7):493-500. [Medline].
Hoffman GS, Cid MC, Rendt-Zagar KE, Merkel PA, Weyand CM, Stone JH, et al. Infliximab for maintenance of glucocorticosteroid-induced remission of giant cell arteritis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. May 1 2007;146(9):621-30. [Medline].
Nesher G, Berkun Y, Mates M, Baras M, Rubinow A, Sonnenblick M. Low-dose aspirin in the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. Apr,2004;50:1026-1027. [Medline].
Braun N, Fritz P, Rieth A, Schroth W, Kimmel M, Biegger D, et al. Predictors for treatment success and expression of glucocorticoid receptor in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. J Rheumatol. Oct 2009;36(10):2269-76. [Medline].
Narvaez J, Nolla-Sole JM, Clavaguera MT, et al. Longterm therapy in polymyalgia rheumatica: effect of coexistent temporal arteritis. J Rheumatol. Sep 1999;26(9):1945-52. [Medline].
Alpers CE, Davis CL, Barr D, et al. Identification of platelet-derived growth factor A and B chains in human renal vascular rejection. Am J Pathol. Feb 1996;148(2):439-51. [Medline].
Bignon JD, Ferec C, Barrier J, et al. HLA class II genes polymorphism in DR4 giant cell arteritis patients. Tissue Antigens. Nov 1988;32(5):254-8. [Medline].
Bjornsson J. Clues to the pathogenesis of giant cell arteritis from the study of the vessel wall. Arthritis Care Res. Oct 2000;13(5):249-51. [Medline].
Blockmans D, Ceuninck L, Vanderschueren S, et al. Repetitive (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in giant cell arteritis: A prospective study of 35 patients. Arthritis Rheum. Feb 2006;55(1):131-7. [Medline].
Bongartz T, Matteson EL. Large-vessel involvement in giant cell arteritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. Jan 2006;18(1):10-7. [Medline].
Both M, Aries PM, Muller-Hulsbeck S, et al. Balloon angioplasty of upper extremity arteries in patients with extracranial giant cell arteritis. Ann Rheum Dis. Feb 7 2006;[Medline].
Brack A, Martinez-Taboada V, Stanson A, et al. Disease pattern in cranial and large-vessel giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. Feb 1999;42(2):311-7. [Medline].
Cantini F, Salvarani C, Olivieri I, et al. Inflamed shoulder structures in polymyalgia rheumatica with normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Arthritis Rheum. May 2001;44(5):1155-9. [Medline].
Chan JW. Acute monocular visual loss in carcinomatous hypertrophic pachymeningitis mimicking giant cell arteritis. Rheumatol Int. Dec 9 2005;1-2. [Medline].
Dababneh A, Gonzalez-Gay MA, Garcia-Porrua C, et al. Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica can be differentiated by distinct patterns of HLA class II association. J Rheumatol. Nov 1998;25(11):2140-5. [Medline].
de Castro LE, Petersen AM, Givre SJ, et al. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus: presenting as giant-cell arteritis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. Dec 2005;33(6):636-8. [Medline].
Fauchald P, Rygvold O, Oystese B. Temporal arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Clinical and biopsy findings. Ann Intern Med. Dec 1972;77(6):845-52. [Medline].
Fox GN. Giant cell arteritis. CMAJ. Dec 6 2005;173(12):1490. [Medline].
Ghanchi FD, Dutton GN. Current concepts in giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Surv Ophthalmol. Sep-Oct 1997;42(2):99-123. [Medline].
Glazunov AV, Zhiliaev EV, Toldieva FA, Dzhanashiia PKh. [Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis]. Klin Med (Mosk). 2005;83(11):39-45. [Medline].
Gonzalez-Gay MA, Lopez-Diaz MJ, Barros S, et al. Giant cell arteritis: laboratory tests at the time of diagnosis in a series of 240 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). Sep 2005;84(5):277-90. [Medline].
Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Llorca J, Garcia-Porrua C, et al. Steroid therapy improves endothelial function in patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis. J Rheumatol. Jan 2006;33(1):74-8. [Medline].
Hachulla E, Boivin V, Pasturel-Michon U, et al. Prognostic factors and long-term evolution in a cohort of 133 patients with giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. Mar-Apr 2001;19(2):171-6. [Medline].
Hall S, Hunder GG. Is temporal artery biopsy prudent?. Mayo Clin Proc. Nov 1984;59(11):793-6. [Medline].
Hamilton CR Jr, Shelley WM, Tumulty PA. Giant cell arteritis: including temporal arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Medicine (Baltimore). Jan 1971;50(1):1-27. [Medline].
Haworth S, Ridgeway J, Stewart I, et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica is associated with both HLA-DRB1*0401 and DRB1*0404. Br J Rheumatol. Jul 1996;35(7):632-5. [Medline].
Hernandez-Rodriguez J, Garcia-Martinez A, Espigol-Frigole G, et al. Sustained spontaneous clinical remission in giant cell arteritis: Report of two cases with long-term followup. Arthritis Rheum. Feb 15 2006;55(1):160-162. [Medline].
Hervé F, Choussy V, Janvresse A, Cailleux N, Levesque H, Marie I. [Aortic involvement in giant cell arteritis. A prospective follow-up of 11 patients using computed tomography]. Rev Med Interne. Mar 2006;27(3):196-202. [Medline].
Hollenhorst RW, Brown JR, Wagener HP, Shick RM. Neurologic aspects of temporal arteritis. Neurology. May 1960;10:490-8. [Medline].
Jover JA, Hernandez-Garcia C, Morado IC, et al. Combined treatment of giant-cell arteritis with methotrexate and prednisone. a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. Jan 16 2001;134(2):106-14. [Medline].
Kaiser M, Weyand CM, Bjornsson J, Goronzy JJ. Platelet-derived growth factor, intimal hyperplasia, and ischemic complications in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. Apr 1998;41(4):623-33. [Medline].
Klein RG, Campbell RJ, Hunder GG, Carney JA. Skip lesions in temporal arteritis. Mayo Clin Proc. AUG 1976;51(8):504-10. [Medline].
Limas-Banos I, Seijo-Martinez M. [Giant cell arteritis in association with acute multifocal stroke.]. Rev Neurol. Feb 1-15 2006;42(3):189-91. [Medline].
Martin J, Perez-Armengol C, Miranda-Filloy JA, et al. Lack of association of a functional -94ins/delATTG NFKB1 promoter polymorphism with susceptibility and clinical expression of biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis in northwest Spain. J Rheumatol. Feb 2006;33(2):285-8. [Medline].
Mecklenburg I, Brumberger V, Burchardi C, et al. Hepatic involvement in a patient with giant cell arteritis. Dig Dis Sci. Jan 2006;51(1):39-40. [Medline].
Myklebust G, Wilsgaard T, Jacobsen BK, Gran JT. Causes of death in polymyalgia rheumatica. A prospective longitudinal study of 315 cases and matched population controls. Scand J Rheumatol. 2003;32(1):38-41. [Medline].
O'Duffy JD, Wahner HW, Hunder GG. Joint imaging in polymyalgia rheumatica. Mayo Clin Proc. Aug 1976;51(8):519-24. [Medline].
Patel AD, Varma R. Giant cell arteritis. CMAJ. Dec 6 2005;173(12):1490.
Pfadenhauer K, Rull T. Ultrasonographic and FDG-PET imaging in active giant cell arteritis of the carotid arteries. Vasa. Nov 2005;34(4):269-71. [Medline].
Ripoll JM, Zaragoza JM, Banuls SR, Sanchis AM. First-time manifestation of giant-cell arteritis during methotrexate treatment. J Clin Rheumatol. Aug 2005;11(4):240. [Medline].
Roth AM, Milsow L, Keltner JL. The ultimate diagnoses of patients undergoing temporal artery biopsies. Arch Ophthalmol. Jun 1984;102(6):901-3. [Medline].
Sailler LJ, Porte L, Ollier SM, et al. Giant cell arteritis and spinal cord compression: an overlap syndrome?. Mayo Clin Proc. Jan 2006;81(1):89-91. [Medline].
Salvarani C, Cantini F, Boiardi L, Hunder GG. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis. N Engl J Med. Jul 25 2002;347(4):261-71. [Medline].
Salvarani C, Cantini F, Olivieri I, et al. Proximal bursitis in active polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Intern Med. Jul 1 1997;127(1):27-31. [Medline].
Salvarani C, Hunder GG. Giant cell arteritis with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: frequency of occurence in a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. Apr 2001;45(2):140-5. [Medline].
Snow MH, Radio S, Mikuls TR. Disseminated giant cell arteritis with inflammatory arthritis and C-ANCA. J Clin Rheumatol. Aug 2005;11(4):216-8. [Medline].
Sorensen S, Lorenzen I. Giant-cell arteritis, temporal arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. A retrospective study of 63 patients. Acta Med Scand. 1977;201(3):207-13. [Medline].
Varnholt H. Giant cell arteritis. CMAJ. Dec 6 2005;173(12):1490. [Medline].
Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ. Arterial wall injury in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. May 1999;42(5):844-53. [Medline].
Weyand CM, Hicok KC, Hunder GG, Goronzy JJ. Tissue cytokine patterns in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med. Oct 1 1994;121(7):484-91. [Medline].
Weyand CM, Ma-Krupa W, Pryshchep O, et al. Vascular dendritic cells in giant cell arteritis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. Dec 2005;1062:195-208. [Medline].

