eMedicine Specialties > Radiology > Chest

Cystic Fibrosis, Thoracic

Eleni Giannouli, MD, Consulting Staff, Assistant Professor, Section of Respirology and Critical Care, Department of Critical Care,Winnipeg Regional Health Authority Health Sciences Center
Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC, Professor and Head, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba; Site Director, Respiratory Medicine, St. Boniface General Hospital; Bruce Maycher, MD, Director of Pulmonary Radiology, St Boniface General Hospital; Associate Professor, Department of Radiology, University of Manitoba

Updated: Apr 13, 2009

Introduction

Background

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a multisystemic, autosomal recessive disorder that predominantly affects infants, children, and young adults.^1,2,3 CF is the most common life-limiting genetic disorder in whites, with an incidence of 1 case per 3200-3300 newborns in the United States.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Young man with a history of cystic fibrosis has hyperinflation and predominantly upper lobe bronchiectasis.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT image shows bronchial wall thickening (tram lines), predominantly in the upper lobes.

Manifestations of CF involve the lung and gastrointestinal tract, including the pancreas.⁶ Dr D. Anderson first described the disease comprehensively in 1938. The term cystic fibrosis was coined because of the microscopic appearance of the pancreas.

For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Lung and Airway Center, Pneumonia Center, Cancer and Tumors Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Bronchitis, Emphysema, Bacterial Pneumonia, and Bronchial Adenoma.

Pathophysiology

Pathology

Hyperplastic airway epithelium with areas of erosion and squamous metaplasia are seen. Hyperplasia of the submucosal glands and plugs of mucoid material and inflammatory cells are found in the lumen. Eventually, grossly dilated airways with purulent secretions and severely congested parenchyma develop. Radiologic findings reflect the pathologic changes in the airways.⁷

Pathogenesis

Malfunction of the gene coding for the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein results from most of the mutations described in Genetics, below. This malfunction leads to defective cAMP-dependent chloride secretion from the epithelium of different exocrine tissues, leading to thick viscous and difficult-to-clear secretions in lungs, sinuses, pancreas, intestine, liver, and reproductive tract.^8,9,10,11 In addition, the CFTR-mediated regulation of sodium channel activity may fail, leading to increased sodium absorption from the airways, which contributes to the alteration in the rheology of airway secretions. Typically, patients with CF present with multisystemic disease involving several or all of the organs mentioned.¹²

Chronic airway obstruction due to viscous secretions is soon followed by colonization with pathogenic bacteria, including Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. P aeruginosa and some other gram-negative bacteria, such as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Burkholderia cepacia, Burkholderia pickettii, and Burkholderia gladioli, often acquire a mucoid phenotype, which is multidrug-resistant and rare in other disease states.^13,14

CFTR protein may have additional functions beyond that of the chloride channel that can account for the frequent colonization and persistent infection by these bacteria. That CFTR protein may alter the mix of sugars in the epithelial surface in ways that favor colonization by some organisms and not others has been postulated.

Bacterial killing via neutrophils and b-defensins in the airways also appears to require normal, rather than high, levels of chloride. Endobronchial infection occurs very early in life in patients with CF. The initial microorganisms are gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Proteus and Klebsiella species. In addition, H influenzae and S aureus are recovered on the initial encounter in many patients. By age 15-16 years, more than 60% of patients with CF acquire a P aeruginosa infection. The mucoid variant of this infection is considered pathognomonic for CF.

Later in the course of the disease, persistent colonization and infection (especially by P aeruginosa) may provoke an increase in inflammatory responses.¹⁵ The presence of chronic inflammation promotes the viscosity of airway mucus, which is increased by the large amounts of DNA and cytosol matrix proteins released by the granulation of neutrophils. Additionally, chronic inflammation promotes tissue destruction via the excessive release of elastase by recruited neutrophils. Lung damage progresses to bronchiectasis, altered pulmonary function, and respiratory failure.¹⁶

CF is caused by mutations in a single large 250,000–base pair gene on chromosome 7 that encodes the CFTR protein.^17,18 Expression of the CF gene is restricted largely to epithelial cells. The CFTR protein is similar in structure to a family of proteins (ie, traffic adenosine triphosphatase [ATPase]) that are involved in active transport across the cell membrane.¹⁹

The CFTR protein has 2 hydrophobic domains, each involving 6 loops that span the membrane and 2 nucleotide-binding folds that cleave ATPase, providing the energy for transport. In addition, CFTR contains a highly charged central regulatory domain, with multiple phosphorylation sites. This allows CFTR to function as a regulated chloride channel, which in turn may regulate the activity of other chloride and sodium channels at the cell surface. When the regulatory domain is not phosphorylated by phosphokinase A, it acts as a gate blocking the flow of chloride. The addition of phosphates, probably through cleavage of ATPase, opens the gate, allowing chloride to flow through the pore.

More than 70% of patients with CF have deletion of 3 contiguous base pairs resulting in the loss of a single amino acid (phenylalanine at codon 508), hence its designation as DF508. However, more than 300 additional CFTR gene defects have been identified, of which at least 230 are known to be associated with clinical disease.²⁰

CFTR mutations have been grouped in 5 classes as follows:

• Class I: The defective synthesis of CFTR is a result of unstable messenger RNA and leads to the complete absence of CFTR protein and its function. Abnormal transcription is caused by non-sense, frameshift, or splice-site mutations (genotype example [GE], W1282X).
• Class II: Protein processing is defective. A typical example of this mutation involves DF508. In this example, the CFTR protein fails to undergo the appropriate folding required for its trafficking to the correct position in the cell membrane, and as a result, it is degraded and entrapped in the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Class III: Regulation and activation of CFTR are defective. Abnormal CFTR proteins arrive at the site of function, but they are unable to activate or function normally as ion channels (GE, G551D).
• Class IV: Defective conduction in the chloride channel results in a reduction of ion flow and induces changes while the ion channel remains open (GE, R117H).
• Class V: Some authors have described a class V mutation, in which decreased attenuated production of CFTR and attenuated conductance occur.

Different cell lines may vary in their ability to process varying defective proteins. The phenotypic presentation of the disease is probably related to the underlying genetic abnormality. The common clinical presentation of the disease is in a child with respiratory distress and malabsorption; this presentation is typical of patients who are homozygous for DF508. Patients with less-severe variations of the disease or those with typical CF and sweat test results that are borderline normal have other haplotypes.²¹

Mutations in CFTR have been identified in adults with idiopathic chronic pancreatitis without other evidence of an increased prevalence of CF.²² Results of several studies suggest that CFTR mutations may play an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis. In addition, some individuals in the general population who have chronic rhinosinusitis may have mutations in the CFTR gene. The most common polymorphism is M470V.²³

CFTR plays a significant role in the organogenesis of wolffian structures and the vas deferens. Incompletely developed wolffian structures and, most commonly, an absent vas deferens are found almost universally in patients with CF. These abnormalities, as well as defects in sperm transport related to malfunction of the CFTR protein, account for the infertility seen in more than 95% of male patients with CF.^24,25

No known specific CFTR mutation predisposes patients to the development of meconium ileus or hepatobiliary disease.

Frequency

United States

CF is the most common autosomal recessive disease among whites, with an occurrence of 1 case per 3200-3300 live births in whites. The carrier rate in whites is 1 in 29.

International

Inheritance varies in persons in European countries, following a geographic gradient. The incidence is higher in northwestern countries and lower in southeastern countries. The highest rate occurs in Scotland, with an incidence of 1 case per 500 population. Overall, the incidence of CF is estimated to be 1 case per 2000-4000 population in whites.

Several isolated populations have an unusually high incidence of CF. The Hutterite population in Alberta has a rate of 1 case per 313 population; Afrikaners in southwestern Africa, 1 case per 622; and French Canadians from the Saguenay-Lac St Jean region, 1 case per 895.

Mortality/Morbidity

At one time, the disease killed affected patients during infancy, but advances in therapy have brightened the outlook. Pulmonary complications account for most of the mortality and morbidity.²⁶ Socioeconomic factors and the availability of resources play an important role in mortality and morbidity.

• Although the median survival was less than 1 year for patients in 1940, it had increased to 14 years by the 1970s, and it is now 29-31 years. Although previously, CF was a childhood disease, it has become an adult pulmonary condition.²⁷
• Currently, one third of the population with this pediatric disease is adult, and patients as old as 60 years are seen in CF clinics.
• In South America, the median survival age remains at 9 years.

Race

CF occurs infrequently in native Africans and Asians. In the US, incidence of CF differs by race and ethnicity, ie, 1 case per 15,000 African Americans, 1 case per 9500 Hispanics, 1 case per 11,200 American Indians, and 1 case per 32,000 in individuals of Asian origin.

• The carrier rate varies similarly, ie, 1 per 62 in African Americans; 1 per 90 in Asian Americans; and 1 per 49 in Hispanics. The high carrier rate may infer a heterozygote advantage related to disease resistance or fecundity, but the mechanism is unclear.
• In most patients, the family history is negative for CF. CF should be considered in patients with diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, especially those from multiracial countries.

Sex

Overall, the male-to-female ratio of CF is balanced.

Age

In 70% of patients, diagnosis is established prior to age 1 year, usually within the first several months of life. However, more recent statistics from the US Cystic Fibrosis Foundation database report a mean age of 3 years at diagnosis. In 8% of patients, the diagnosis is not established until after the age of 10 years, and the diagnosis is being made in an increasing number of adults.^28,29

Presentation

In most patients, CF is suggested by the presence of 1 or more typical clinical features as follows:

• Chronic sinopulmonary disease - Persistent colonization and infection by typical CF pathogens (ie, S aureus, H influenzae, mucoid and nonmucoid P aeruginosa, and Burkholderia species)
  • Chronic cough and sputum production
  • Airway obstruction manifested by wheezing and airtrapping
  • Nasal polyps
  • Digital clubbing
• Gastrointestinal and nutritional abnormalities
  • Intestinal - Meconium ileus, distal intestinal obstruction syndrome (DIOS), rectal prolapse, pancreatic insufficiency, and recurrent pancreatitis
  • Hepatic - Chronic hepatic disease resulting from focal or multilobular cirrhosis
  • Nutritional - Failure to thrive (protein calorie malnutrition), hypoproteinemia and edema, and complications secondary to fat-soluble vitamin deficiency³⁰
• Salt loss syndrome - Acute salt depletion and chronic metabolic alkalosis
• Male urogenital abnormalities - Resulting in obstructive azoospermia (congenital bilateral absence or atresia of the vas deferens)

The clinical presentations can vary by age group: prenatal, neonatal, infancy and childhood, and adolescence and adulthood. Findings are as follows:

• Prenatal
  • High-risk pregnancy
    • If the genotype status of the parents is known, the diagnosis of CF can be excluded or confirmed with a high degree of accuracy by means of direct mutation analysis performed on fetal cells. These cells are obtained from chorionic villus sampling at 10 weeks or from cultured amniotic fluid cells collected at 15-18 weeks.
    • Postnatal sweat testing should also be performed in all patients in whom CF is confirmed or excluded on the basis of prenatal DNA results.
  • Fetal intestinal obstruction
    • In fetuses not known to be at increased risk for CF, the diagnosis is occasionally suspected because of prenatal sonographic findings suggestive of intestinal obstruction, such as a hyperechoic fetal bowel pattern.³¹ A hyperechoic bowel may be a benign variant. If it is benign, it is usually resolved before the third trimester. In pregnancies with evidence of fetal intestinal obstruction, carrier testing for CF gene mutations can be performed. If both parents are carriers for the mutation, CF in the fetus is highly likely. This can be confirmed by means of direct mutation analysis of amniotic fluid cells.
    • Prenatal ultrasonography can also demonstrate meconium peritonitis secondary to small-bowel perforation in utero; however, this is associated with CF in only a minority of patients. The presence of abdominal calcifications suggests causes of meconium peritonitis other than CF. Conversely, the absence of calcifications suggests a diagnosis of CF. Parental CF carrier testing with fetal mutation analysis in at-risk couples is useful in such cases.
• Neonatal³²
  • Meconium ileus may be present. Of patients with CF, 18% present with intestinal obstruction in the immediate postnatal period. The condition is secondary to inspissation of tenacious meconium in the ileum. In these patients, 50% experience complications such as peritonitis, volvulus, atresia, necrosis, perforation, or pseudocyst formation. In full-term neonates with meconium ileus, CF is confirmed in 98%.
  • Meconium plug syndrome can be the presenting manifestation of CF in the neonatal period.
    • Meconium plug syndrome is characterized by transient distal colonic obstruction relieved by the passage of a meconium plug. Meconium plug syndrome is not specific to CF because it can occur either by itself or in association with premature birth, sepsis, infant of diabetic mother and Hirschsprung disease, but its presence raises the possibility of CF.
    • Meconium ileus and meconium plug syndrome should be distinguished from meconium disease or inspissated meconium syndrome seen in infants with low birth weight. Inspissated meconium syndrome is seen in patients several days of age, after the initial passage of meconium. In this condition, meconium plugs are found in the distal ileum and colon; respiratory distress syndrome, unrelated to CF, is commonly present.
  • Jejunal atresia can also be the presenting feature of CF, often in association with volvulus and meconium peritonitis.
  • Liver disease may be present. Neonates with CF may present with prolonged obstructive jaundice resulting from intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile stasis, due to thick bile. Meconium ileus or delayed passage of meconium is associated with 50% of cases. Clinical and laboratory features may mimic biliary atresia. The frequency at which cases progress to liver failure or early cirrhosis is unknown.
  • Pulmonary manifestations may be observed. Although histologic findings are normal at birth, pulmonary changes beginning with obstruction of the peripheral airways from retained secretions may be seen within weeks. Respiratory symptoms may begin during the first month of life, eg, cough, wheezing, tachypnea, and retractions. Other infants may have severe respiratory distress associated with a bronchiolitis-like syndrome.
  • Growth failure may occur. Failure to regain birth weight within 2 weeks or inadequate weight gain at age 4-6 weeks is common in neonates with CF.
• Infancy and childhood
  • Upper respiratory tract: The presence of nasal polyps in a child is an indication for a sweat test. Nasal polyps occur in 10-32% of patients with CF. More than 90% of patients older than age 8 months have recurrent sinusitis that is refractory to antibiotic therapy. Rarely, a patient with CF presents with unilateral proptosis secondary to mucocele of the underlying sinus.
  • Lower respiratory tract: In 50% of patients with CF, the diagnosis is first considered because of pulmonary symptoms. Although the lower respiratory tract is involved almost invariably, manifestations may not appear until months or years after birth. Manifestations of lower respiratory tract involvement include the following:
    • Prolonged/recurrent pneumonia and bronchitis
    • Atelectasis
    • Airway hyperreactivity: One study documented wheezing in 50% of young children with CF and mild pulmonary disease (mean age, 16 mo). Of children with wheezing, 43% were responsive to bronchodilator therapy. However, this response does not always persist with increasing age, and some patients have worsening expiratory airflow in the form of refractory asthma or a deterioration in response to treatment with beta-adrenergic agents. The latter is due to floppy airways secondary to loss of cartilaginous support related to progressive airway damage.
    • Bronchiolitis
    • Bronchiectasis
    • Chronic cough: The clinical picture associated with most of the above conditions is characterized by chronic cough, which can be dry at first. This is often paroxysmal, worse at night, and progressively productive.
    • An increase in sputum production and changes in its color and quality are found. Also noted is the occasional low-grade fever, increased fatigue, shortness of breath, tachypnea, wheezing, and suprasternal or intercostal retractions characterized by periodic flare-ups.
    • Colonization by pathogenic bacteria is a hallmark of the disease. S aureus and H influenzae are pathogens commonly found in early childhood, with an incidence of isolation in respiratory cultures of 38% for S aureus and approximately 16% for H influenzae, although prevalence of the latter may vary in different regions. P aeruginosa is the most prevalent of the pathogens found in patients with CF; ultimately, it is isolated in approximately 60-80% of children, while B cepacia and S maltophilia are isolated with increasing frequency (4%). Aspergillus fumigatus and other fungi are recovered frequently from the respiratory tracts of patients with CF. The significance of this is unclear, but on occasion, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), extensive mucus plugging, or development of a mycetoma in a preexisting bronchiectatic space can be seen.³³ Mycobacterial species are documented in 2-20% of patients, and in some patients, the microorganisms may be pathogenic.
    • Initially, pulmonary function abnormalities include airway obstruction with hyperinflation and gas trapping, which result in an elevated ratio of the residual volume to the total lung capacity. In more advanced disease states, the total lung capacity may decline because interstitial fibrosis and restrictive components are manifested. Hypoxemia occurs, initially during sleep or exercise; this results from an extensive ventilation and perfusion mismatch. The severity of hypoxemia parallels the status of the lung. Hypercapnia occurs as a late event in CF disease progression and generally portends a poor prognosis.
    • Pulmonary abnormalities include the following:
      • Hemoptysis
      • Pneumothorax (This is believed to be the result of rupture of subpleural blebs and is generally seen in more-severe disease.)
      • Clubbing is a universal finding in symptomatic patients older than 4 years. Often, digital clubbing is present early in the course of pulmonary manifestations. The severity appears to be correlated with a degree of pulmonary dysfunction, but this is not universal. Clubbing can also be seen in patients with mild pulmonary disease accompanied by liver disease.
  • Gastrointestinal tract
    • Steatorrhea/pancreatic insufficiency is present from birth in most patients with CF and results in malabsorption of fat and protein. Clinical features include abdominal protuberance; cramping abdominal pain; flatulence; frequent, bulky, oily, malodorous stools; and poor weight gain. Associated rectal prolapse may occur.
    • Acute pancreatitis may be present.
    • Intussusception may be noted.
    • Mucoid impaction of the appendix (asymptomatic right lower quadrant mass) may occur. The diagnosis of CF is occasionally suggested by the histologic appearance of an appendix removed from a patient with acute or recurrent/chronic abdominal pain, which is characterized by an increased number of goblet cells distended with mucus and eosinophilic cast of the crypts extruding into the lumen.
    • Recurrent DIOS or meconium ileus equivalent (MIE) occurs as a result of stools that adhere to the intestinal wall. Clinically, DIOS and MIE are characterized by recurrent cramping abdominal pain, a palpable mass in the right lower quadrant, and signs of complete or partial intestinal obstruction. The prevalence is usually higher during the second or third decades of life. DIOS and MIE are uncommon in patients younger than 5 years, and the prevalence in that age group is approximately 2%. Fibrosing colonopathy is described in young children ( <10 y) but not adults, especially among those treated with high daily doses of pancreatic enzyme supplements. Affected patients may have evidence of obstruction and bloody diarrhea, and biopsy findings include submucosal and lamina propria fibrosis combined with inflammatory changes.
    • Gastroesophageal reflux
  • Focal multilobular biliary cirrhosis of the liver and/or cholestasis may occur. Cholestasis is commonly associated with CF. Approximately 30% of patients have elevation of liver enzymes and alkaline phosphatase levels only. Focal biliary cirrhosis is usually clinically insignificant and can be seen in 25% of patients with CF. However, in a small number of patients, multilobular biliary cirrhosis may develop (5%), and disease in 2% of patients progresses to cirrhosis, portal hypertension, splenomegaly, esophageal varices, and liver failure. Severely malnourished infants may present with a fat liver.
  • Absence of the vas deferens is an incidental finding at the time of orchiopexy or herniography. This may provide the initial clue to the diagnosis of CF in this patient population.
  • Deficiency of vitamins, electrolytes, and protein
    • Bulging fontanel and pseudotumor cerebri result from vitamin A deficiency.
    • Hemolytic anemia results from vitamin E deficiency.
    • Hemorrhagic complications can result from vitamin K deficiency from liver failure or malabsorption.
    • Rickets is seen only rarely, resulting from vitamin D deficiency.
    • Edema and hypoproteinemia usually occur in association with breast milk or soya protein feedings. Associated findings include anemia, hepatomegaly, elevated concentration of liver enzymes, and rash (acrodermatitis enteropathica).
    • Failure to thrive may occur.
    • Hyponatremic/hypochloremic dehydration is secondary to salt depletion from sweat (salty skin).
    • Hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis is secondary to chronic salt loss. Always consider CF in an infant with profound hypoelectrolytemia that is not accounted for by gastrointestinal losses.
• Adolescence and adulthood³⁴
  • Upper and lower respiratory tract
    • Many patients have a history of typical, although somewhat mild, respiratory tract features of CF, with an onset in childhood. This is often associated with a poor growth pattern.
    • In some patients, pulmonary symptoms may first appear after age 13 years and sometimes after the second or third decade of life. In older patients, respiratory symptoms are occasionally absent.
    • Respiratory manifestations usually are similar to those found in children. The severity may progress with time, with the deterioration of bronchiectasis and the development of large cystic airspaces and fibrosis.
    • Hemoptysis occurs in as many as 60% of patients over their lifetime. Hemoptysis, pneumothorax (5-20%), allergic pulmonary aspergillosis, or poorly controlled asthma is more common in adults than in children, whereas the incidences of nasal polyps/sinusitis are similar in adults and children.
    • P aeruginosa and B cepacia are recovered more frequently in adults than children, with rates of 90% and 6%, respectively.
    • Pulmonary hypertension/cor pulmonale developing with advanced pulmonary parenchymal disease is a poor prognostic sign and, in adults, is associated with a mean survival of 8 months.
  • Pancreatic or gastrointestinal involvement³⁵
    • Manifestations are similar to those found in children.
    • The incidences of DIOS are similar in adults and children. However, some reports state that the incidence of DIOS increases with age, with a peak incidence of 27% in patients with CF older than 30 years.
    • Episodes of acute pancreatitis and peptic ulcer disease are more common in adults than children.
    • The incidence of gastrointestinal cancer increases in association with CF, and more cases are anticipated as patients live longer.
    • Cancer of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver or biliary tract, pancreas, and retroperitoneum have been reported.
    • The colon is the most common site of cancer in CF with cancer of the colon accounting for 37.5% of malignancies.
    • Possible carcinogenic factors include abnormal CFTR protein function and an antioxidant deficiency related to malabsorption.
    • Glucose intolerance is observed in 30-60% of patients, with overt diabetes occurring in 10%. Diabetes is more common in adults than children. Unlike usual juvenile onset diabetes mellitus, adolescents with CF rarely exhibit ketoacidosis and ketonuria.
  • Hepatobiliary disease³⁶
    • Cholelithiasis, usually with cholesterol stones, is seen in approximately 10-12% of patients and may result from excessive loss of bile acids in the stool, with consequent reduction of lithogenic bile.
    • Older patients may present with cirrhosis in the absence of pulmonary symptoms. Consider CF in any patient with obscure liver disease.
  • Reproductive system
    • Infertility is a nearly universal feature in males with CF because of congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens and, less commonly, atresia of the vas deferens resulting in obstructive azoospermia. Approximately 1% of males with CF are fertile, and these individuals usually have very mild disease manifestations. Spermatogenesis is normal in men with CF; however, incidence of abnormal spermatozoa is higher than observed in men without CF. Surgical retrieval of sperm from the epididymis and endocystic reproductive techniques can facilitate biologic fatherhood for a small number of men with CF.
    • The incidence of female infertility may be as high as 20%. It may result both from secondary amenorrhea (resulting from malnutrition or chronic lung disease) and the production of abnormally tenacious cervical mucus. When patients with CF become pregnant, the maternal and fetal outcomes are usually favorable. Before pregnancy, the following findings contribute to a good prognosis: forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁) exceeds 50-60% of predicted values, an excellent nutritional status, intact pancreatic function, and an older age.³⁷
  • Musculoskeletal disorders
    • Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (HBOA) is a syndrome characterized by abnormal proliferation of the skin and osseous tissue at the distal parts of the extremities. HBOA occurs in association with radiographically confirmed periosteal formation in newborns. Clubbing and HBOA are different manifestations of the same disease process; however, unlike clubbing, HBOA is less frequent, seen in approximately 5% of patients. HBOA is usually rare in children and appears with increased age and increased disease severity.
    • CF arthropathy occurs in 2-9% of patients and is characterized by short episodes of arthritis. This is occasionally accompanied by painful nodular skin lesions and purpura.
    • Osteoporosis and pathologic fractures may occur. Mineralization of the bones is 20% less common in patients with CF than in age- and sex-matched control subjects. This mineralization results in a higher fracture risk.^38,39

Diagnostic criteria for CF

• One of the following:
  • Two elevated sweat chloride levels (60 mEq/L)
  • Two CF mutations
  • Abnormal transepithelial potential readings

• Plus one of the following:
  • One or more clinical phenotype features (eg, chronic suppurative pulmonary disease and/or pancreatic insufficiency)
  • History of CF in a first-degree relative

Preferred Examination

The diagnosis of CF is based on compatible clinical findings, with biochemical or genetic confirmation. So far, the sweat chloride test is the mainstay of laboratory confirmation. However, CF is a complex syndrome, and the clinical manifestations are sometimes subtle. Also, the family history is not always straightforward. Therefore, a battery of clinical or genetic tests and a high index of suspicion are often required to establish the diagnosis, especially in adolescents and young adults.

Commonly performed tests are described below. Radiologic modalities used to diagnose or follow up thoracic CF invariably include chest radiography and CT of thorax.^40,41,42 CT of sinuses or abdomen is occasionally used, as are nuclear medicine studies, ultrasonography, and angiography.^43,44,45

Laboratory tests⁴⁶

Sweat chloride test

The sweat chloride test remains the criterion standard for the diagnosis of CF. Most diagnostic laboratories in the US screen for 20-30% of the most common mutations, identifying approximately 90% of chromosomes affected in CF. The remaining 10% of affected chromosomes comprise more than 400 different pathologic mutations of CFTR. As a result, more-extensive screening is impractical. A sweat chloride value greater than 60 mEq/L distinguishes CF from other forms of chronic pulmonary disease. However, normal sweat chloride concentrations may be observed in approximately 1% of patients with CF, who have unusual genotypes (ie, 3849+10kb CT or poly T defects).

The test is performed by collecting sweat with pilocarpine iontophoresis on 2 or more occasions and by chemically determining the chloride concentration. Conditions other than CF that are associated with elevated sweat electrolyte concentrations include adrenal insufficiency, anorexia nervosa, celiac disease, malnutrition, hypothyroidism, and congenital metabolic diseases.

The incidence of erroneous sweat test results is probably in the range of 10-15%, and most errors represent false-positive results. Most errors are caused by the use of unreliable methodology, inadequate sweat collection, technical mistakes, and misinterpretation of results; therefore, the test should be performed in a laboratory that regularly uses extreme care with assays. False-negative results can be seen in hypoproteinemic edema and with the concurrent administration of steroids.

Nasal potential-difference measurements

Abnormalities in epithelial chloride secretions can be demonstrated in most patients with CF by evaluating the nasal transepithelial potential difference in the basal state. This test is performed after nasal perfusion with amiloride and after nasal perfusion with a chloride-free solution.

Three features distinguish CF: (1) increased basal potential difference, which reflects enhanced Na⁺ transport across a relatively chloride-impermeable barrier; (2) greater inhibition of potential difference after nasal perfusion with the Na⁺ channel inhibitor amiloride, which reflects inhibition of accelerated Na⁺ transport; and (3) little or no change in potential difference in response to perfusion of the nasal epithelial surface with a chloride-free solution in conjunction with isoproterenol, which reflects an absence of CFTR- mediated chloride secretion.

An increased, ie, more negative, basal nasal potential difference is strong evidence of CF. The presence of nasal polyps or inflamed mucosa may yield a false-negative result. The presence of a large response to chloride-free perfusion is strong evidence against CF. The test should be performed only by experienced CF centers because standardization of the location of measurement is critical.

Immunoreactive trypsin test

Infants with CF have elevated blood levels of immunoreactive trypsin (IRT), which can be quantitated by means of radioimmunoassay or enzyme-linked immunoassay. A negative result is not informative in patients older than 8 weeks. The test may be particularly useful for small or malnourished infants in whom the sweat chloride test cannot be performed successfully. Overall, false-positive and false-negative rates are relatively high.

Stool fecal fat and pancreatic-enzyme secretion tests

Stool fecal fat and pancreatic-enzyme secretion can be measured by collecting duodenal fluids after simulation with secretin and pancreatozymin. Decreased levels of pancreatic enzymes or elevated stool fat are expressed as the percentage of ingested fat in a 72-h stool collection and can be indicative of CF, respectively.

Molecular diagnostic tests

The molecular diagnosis is usually based on a direct mutation analysis.⁴⁷ A variety of techniques are used to identify specific known mutations in the nuclear type sequence of the CFTR gene. A list of testing laboratories is available through the Genetic Testing Resource. These technologies enable clinicians to identify and confirm the diagnosis, especially in patients with an atypical presentation. For example, patients may have borderline or normal sweat chloride concentrations in the presence of several characteristic phenotypic manifestations, or the suspicion may be high in the absence of clinical features. Other circumstances, such as in prenatal screening, may also warrant these tests.⁴⁸

Early diagnosis is important because early aggressive therapeutic intervention is associated with improved nutritional status, decreased morbidity, and decreased deterioration in lung function. However, screening programs have not been adopted widely.

A 5-year randomized study in Wisconsin did not identify any clear health benefits from routine screening.^32,49 Nevertheless, the identification of patients with CF in the newborn period provides a population for studying the mechanism of early lung injury and the effectiveness of no therapeutic delay in preventing the onset of lung damage.

Radiologic tests

Radiography

Chest radiography is not considered an essential technique to use in the diagnosis of CF; however, it may play a strong corroborative role in diagnosis of the disease.⁵⁰ Chest radiography has also been the mainstay in the longitudinal assessment of patients with CF.^51,52

Thoracic CT scanning

High-resolution CT (HRCT) improves spatial resolution, and it may be useful in the evaluation of minimally affected individuals. Multiple studies have shown that CT is more sensitive and specific than chest radiography in demonstrating bronchiectasis and other abnormalities in patients with normal chest radiographic results.⁵³ HRCT can demonstrate bronchiectasis and mucous plugging to the level of the fifth- or sixth-order bronchi. With expiratory imaging, focal areas of air trapping can be identified as an indication of small-airway disease.^{54,55,56,57,58,59}

The sensitivity and specificity of regular CT (with 10-mm sections) for bronchiectasis is 60-80% and 90-100%, respectively. Use of 1.5- to 5-mm resolution improves the sensitivity and specificity to 87% and 90%, respectively.

Santamaria et al addressed the role of HRCT in assessing CF, comparing HRCT scores, chest radiographic findings, pulmonary function test (PFT) results, and clinical scores.⁶⁰ They found that HRCT of the chest is most useful in the identification of early lung abnormalities in patients with CF with mild respiratory symptoms, whereas in established disease, chest radiography is still the first-line imaging technique. In patients with advanced disease, HRCT may be useful in the evaluation of specific lung changes, when more aggressive treatment, such as chest surgical interventions, is indicated.

HRCT of the chest is useful and sensitive in studying responses to therapy in patients with CF lung disease, even in patients younger than 5 years.^61,62,63 The clinical utility and practicality of this technique is unclear, but HRCT could be used to assess the effectiveness of the therapeutic modality, and its results could be a useful outcome surrogate in CF.⁶⁴

Compared with other findings, total reversible HRCT scores are better correlated with PFT results and acute changes in clinical scores during exacerbations of CF. The greatest change is seen in the mucous-plugging subcomponent of the HRCT score and then in the peribronchial thickening.

Serial CT scans allow assessment of the evolution of pulmonary abnormalities in CF patients. Helbich et al suggest that CT seems to have advantages over PFT and clinical scoring in the evaluation of pulmonary changes over time.⁶⁵ Therefore, some have suggested that HRCT scoring may provide a sensitive method of monitoring pulmonary disease status; this could possibly be helpful in follow-up of small children who are too young to cooperate with spirometry. Some studies have also found a correlation of CT findings and scores with serum immunoglobulin levels, but no relationship to genotypes has been observed.

Characteristic CT findings occasionally suggest a specific diagnosis, which may not have been under clinical consideration in the differential diagnosis of CF. The pattern and distribution of abnormalities revealed by HRCT in patients with bronchiectasis are influenced by the underlying cause. For example, bilateral bronchiectasis predominantly in upper lobe is most common in patients with CF and ABPA, unilateral upper-lobe predominance is seen in patients with tuberculosis, and lower-lobe predominance is seen in patients after a childhood viral infection.⁶⁶

Adult CF and ABPA involve disease that is more extensive than idiopathic bronchiectasis, independent of other CT features (5 or 6 lobes involved). Central bronchiectasis is more commonly reported with ABPA, although the sensitivity of this finding as a diagnostic feature is only 37%. In syndromes with impaired mucociliary clearance, a lower-lobe involvement is more predominant, and bronchiectasis in hypogammaglobulinemia is characterized by less dilatation of the bronchial lumen compared with that seen in idiopathic bronchiectasis.

CT of the thorax can also greatly facilitate the diagnosis and management of pneumothorax in patients with complex cystic disease.

Magnetic resonance imaging

The role of MRI in the evaluation of patients with CF is still being defined, and the use of MRI remains limited.⁶⁷

Ultrasonography

Abdominal ultrasonography is commonly used to diagnose the complications of CF and its pancreatic and hepatobiliary manifestations.

Nuclear medicine study

The usefulness and role of lung scintigraphy in CF remain limited. Hepatobiliary scans may have a role in evaluating hepatobiliary disease in neonates and children.⁶⁸

Decreased bone density is common among patients with CF; this finding usually reflects a lack of control of the illness, and it often remains unfound with the usual investigations. If possible, dual x-ray absorptiometry should be part of the investigations in these patients.^69,70

Angiography

Bronchial arteriography is the preferred diagnostic and therapeutic examination in patients with CF and significant hemoptysis.⁷¹

Limitations of Techniques

Chest radiography

Chest radiographic findings are not specific or diagnostic because they overlap with other disorders, particularly those characterized by inflammatory or destructive changes of the airways. Early in the course of disease, chest radiographs may be normal, or they may show minor manifestations such as mild hyperinflation and minimal bronchial thickening.

Normal chest radiographic findings may be seen in infancy and even in older children with mild pulmonary involvement, though this is uncommon. The usefulness of a chest radiograph during an exacerbation of CF in adult patients is also debated. Some study results support the lack of a precise correlation between the radiographic picture and the clinical manifestations of exacerbation, with a reported sensitivity and specificity of 56% and 78%, respectively. Chest radiograph is predominantly used to exclude pneumothorax or airspace disease such as pneumonia or atelectasis.

Regardless of the radiologic findings, CF is less commonly considered in the adult patient, because of the traditional belief that CF is a childhood disease. Amorosa et al reviewed radiographs in pediatric and adult cases that showed disease of similar extent and severity.⁷ They found that radiologists made the correct diagnosis in 40% of the pediatric cases, compared with 14% in the adult cases.

Chest CT

Despite the capabilities of HRCT, clear guidelines for its use in the care of children with CF are still lacking. The advantage of detecting early changes on CT images awaits additional confirmation. Whether the early introduction of therapeutic interventions significantly affects the final outcome of the disease is yet to be demonstrated.

HRCT does not provide sufficient additional information to justify the additional cost and radiation exposure in routine follow up. With the advent of new therapies and with gene treatment raising the possibility of a cure, the need for a detailed evaluation of the lungs is great, and outcome measures for the new interventions and HRCT scanning should be considered. The value of HRCT in following up patients with CF is not yet clarified.

With regard to its value as a diagnostic tool, CT findings are of limited value in discriminating between bronchiectasis of CF and other causes in individual patients. However, differences in the distribution and morphology of bronchiectasis may be seen on CT scans in groups of patients with bronchiectasis due to different causes. Generally, the causes of bronchiectasis cannot be reliably identified on the basis of CT appearances alone.

Magnetic resonance imaging

In the depiction of bronchial wall thickening, bronchial dilatation, and mucous plugging, the resolution of MRI does not compare favorably with that of CT. MRI is a developing technology that does not involve ionizing radiation. With further refinement, it may prove to be useful in imaging the lung pathology in CF.

Nuclear medicine study

The usefulness of lung scintigraphy is limited. The main problem is the correct clinical use of a test with such a high sensitivity and a high percentage of false-positive results.

Angiography

Although hemoptysis is correlated with bronchial artery hypertrophy and a bronchopulmonary anastomosis within the bronchial walls, the role of prophylactic angiography for further interventions has not been studied. Angiography is invasive and usually performed in the setting of acute significant hemoptysis.

Differential Diagnoses

Bronchiectasis
Meconium Ileus
Meconium Plug Syndrome
Pancreatitis, Chronic

Radiography

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Young man with a history of cystic fibrosis has hyperinflation and predominantly upper lobe bronchiectasis.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Lateral chest radiograph (same patient as in Image above) shows flattened hemidiaphragms, increased retrosternal clear space (overaeration).

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Patient with history of cystic fibrosis has bilateral bronchiectasis, most pronounced in the upper lobes along with left upper lung atelectasis.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Patient with a history of cystic fibrosis has complete right lung atelectasis with extreme bronchiectasis. Marked hyperinflation of the left lung is noted.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Image in a 27-year-old tennis player with a history of cystic fibrosis and only minimal symptoms exhibits bronchial wall thickening, bilateral small nodular opacities, and scoliosis.

Findings

Findings in early disease

Chest radiographs may be normal in patients with CF who have mild lung disease.

Hyperinflation is the earliest discernible change, which is initially reversible with treatment but which later becomes persistent. Hyperinflation is caused by mucus plugging of small bronchioles. It may be the sole manifestation of the disease in childhood, but in some milder cases, it is the only radiologic finding even in adults. Hyperinflation is readily identified through the classic sign of flattening of the diaphragm, anterior bowing of the infant sternum, increased retrosternal air space, and generalized pulmonary overinflation. Air trapping in the older patient may not be recognizable on plain images, but it is readily identified by using HRCT performed in the expiratory phase.

Bronchial cuffing and/or bronchial-wall thickening are very frequent findings. This is caused by infiltration of submucosa by acute and chronic inflammatory cells.

Findings in moderate or advanced disease

Linear streaking and scattered nodules (nodular or reticular nodular appearance) result from the obstruction of small airways by mucus. Mucoid impaction of the bronchi appears as areas of increased opacity that follow the course of dilated bronchi.

Atelectasis may be observed. Segmental, patchy, or lobular atelectasis results from mucus plugging. This complication is more common in children than in adults. In children (not adults), it is associated with a worse prognosis. A characteristic location is in the right upper lobe.

Bronchiectasis is characterized by parallel, thick, line markings radiating from hila (line tracks) in cylindrical bronchiectasis. Ring shadows represent dilated thick-wall bronchi seen in longitudinal section or on-end or dilated bronchi in varicose bronchiectasis. Also seen are clusters of cysts in cystic bronchiectasis and air-fluid levels within cysts representing airway suppuration. These radiographic changes are most common in the upper lobes and are partly related to the effects of gravity and hyperinflation.^72,73 Thin-walled cysts in the upper lobes may appear to extend to the lung surface. Some of the cysts represent emphysematous or interstitial air cysts.

Multiple nodular densities represent mucus plugging and occasionally appear with a finger-in-glove shape or as a combination of V- or Y-shaped branching and bandlike shadows.

Consolidative pneumonia is rare despite persistent bacterial infection. Even with acute clinical exacerbation of disease, chest radiographic findings may not change.

Pleural effusions are not common in CF despite chronic infection. Pleural thickening is better appreciated on CT scans than on other images.

Pneumothorax may be seen.

Hilar enlargement can result from either hilar lymphadenopathy, which is commonly seen as reaction to chronic infection in CF or from enlarged pulmonary arteries.⁷⁴ The heart generally appears small because of hyperinflation. An acute increase in the size of the heart from severe cor pulmonale exacerbation is an ominous, often life-threatening, sign.

Scoring systems

Multiple scoring systems can be used to categorize the chest radiographic findings in CF and to assess the severity of disease.^75,76,77 Although these systems are useful in assessing epidemiology⁷⁸ and natural history, they have not been proven helpful in defining acute clinical exacerbations. The systems are reproducible, and the grades are correlated with the results of PFTs.

In the US, a commonly used system is the Brasfield system, which is also called the Birmingham system.⁷⁶ This classification was developed in 1979.

The systems are used to assess 5 elements, including the following: (1) airtrapping, (2) linear markings, (3) nodular cystic lesions, (4) general severity, and (5) large lesions (eg, atelectasis or consolidation). The first 4 elements are scored 0-4, where 0 is used if the finding is not present, and 4 is used if the finding is severe. The points are totaled then subtracted from 25. A normal chest radiographic finding receives a score of 25. The minimum score for the most severe changes in CF is 3.

Abdominal findings

Dilated multiple loops of the small bowel are seen in neonatal meconium ileus and in meconium ileus–equivalent condition, or DIOS, in older individuals. In neonatal meconium ileus, air-fluid levels are usually absent on horizontal beam views because of the tenacious character of the meconium. Instead, a bubbly appearance can often be noted upon a background of distal bowel obstruction and an absence of rectal air.

Contrast enema examination shows filling defects in the ileocecal region in both entities. The absence of reflux into the terminal ileum also may suggest DIOS in the older person. In neonates, a microcolon of disuse is initially seen, and reflux back across the ileocecal valve finds a string of meconium pellets leading to a long snake-like obstructing ileal filling defect of gelatinous meconium. An attempt is usually made to reflux a water-soluble contrast material proximally into the dilated loops of the ileum to cleanse the bowel of the obstructing meconium. Wetting agents in the contrast agent and the relatively hypertonic fluid may play a role in disimpaction. Serial enema studies over several days may be needed for successful resolution of the meconium ileus.

Colonic mucosa may also appear hyperplastic and redundant, especially in evaluation after a contrast enema. This finding is known as jejunization of the colon and on plain films may mimic fecal retention despite a relatively empty colon. Pneumatosis coli has also been reported and, typically, patients with this condition are asymptomatic.

Contrast enema findings in fibrosing colonopathy include nodularity of the colonic wall, focal or long-segment narrowing, and longitudinal shortening of the colon.

Intussusception can be seen in older children. A tenacious stool in the distal ileum usually is present as the lead point, and dilated fluid filled small bowel loops are likely to be seen. Contrast or air enemas performed in the setting of intussusception are diagnostic and may be therapeutic.

Within the neonatal abdominal cavity or the scrotum, calcifications are evidence of meconium peritonitis resulting from an in utero perforation. Twisted bowel loops associated with acquired atresia and necrosis of bowel may become matted and appear as a mass or pseudocyst. Pancreatic calcifications can be seen.

Duodenal abnormalities are seen in 80% of patients with CF and are most prominent in the first and second parts of the duodenum. Findings include thickening of the mucosal folds, nodular indentations, smudging or poor definition of the mucosal-fold pattern, and redundant and distorted duodenal loops. Remaining small-bowel involvement is less common and primarily involves thickened folds in the proximal jejunum and, occasionally, jejunal dilatation.

Sinus findings

Maldevelopment of the sinuses and pansinus opacification on the radiograph are common findings. Occasionally a mucocele results from osteal obstruction.

Skeletal findings

HBOA is characterized by periosteal new bone formation. Periostitis is seen in the diaphyses of the tubular bones, and it may involve single or multiple layers or a solid cloaking of the bone. Osteopenia may also be found.

Kyphosis is found in 8.7% of patients, as assessed with chest radiographs. Compared with younger persons, subjects older than 20 years have a greater degree of kyphosis, which is associated with worsening lung disease. Bone deformities are important in the development of kyphosis and vertebral fractures. Wedging is seen on chest radiographs in 74% of patients with CF, and 15% of wedges were greater than 20%, which is the usual definition for a vertebral compression fracture. Osteoporosis may play a role in the development of these abnormalities.⁷⁹

False Positives/Negatives

Hyperinflation and peribronchial cuffing may be confused with asthma or bronchiolitis due to other pulmonary infections, particularly measles, pertussis, adenoviral infection, or obliterative bronchiolitis. Linear streaking and scattered nodules may be present in granulomatoses, fungal disease, or sarcoid. Air-fluid levels in large cystic bronchiectasis can be confused with lung abscess. Normal chest radiographic findings cannot completely exclude the presence of bronchiectasis. In one study, 7.1% of chest radiographs were normal in patients with proven CF.

Computed Tomography

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT scan in same patient as in Image 5 in Multimedia shows moderately extensive bronchiectasis at the level of the upper lobes.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT scan of each upper lobe in the same patient as in Image 7 in Multimedia confirms thick bronchial walls, bronchiectasis, and inspissated mucus in ectatic bronchi.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT image shows bronchial wall thickening (tram lines), predominantly in the upper lobes.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Dilated bronchi with thickened wall are depicted bilaterally. Mucoid impaction is the cause of the soft tissue density within the ectatic bronchi in the left lower lobe.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. CT image shows a peribronchial ground glass opacity and hyperinflation in a patient with cystic fibrosis during an acute febrile illness, which responded to antibiotics. This pattern is an example of acute pneumonia.

Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT image in a patient with a history of cystic fibrosis and acute chest pain shows cystic and cylindrical bronchiectasis, as well as a large air space with an air-fluid level in the right upper lobe and subcutaneous emphysema. Extrapulmonary air, including pneumothorax, is a common complication in the presence of large air pockets (cysts).

Findings

Air trapping

Air trapping is readily identified on HRCT scans obtained in expiratory phase. Affected areas appear more lucent, and the change in attenuation is less than the attenuation in the normal lung. On expiratory HRCT scans, air trapping in the absence of inspiratory scan abnormalities could be the earliest sign of small-airway disease. At least, this has been proven for bronchiolitis obliterans and asthma; patients with CF usually have some abnormalities on the inspiratory HRCT scans. Emphysematous bullae and subpleural blebs frequently develop. Overinflation is found in approximately 81% of patients.

Mosaic perfusion

Mosaic perfusion is the second sign of small-airway abnormalities on HRCT scans and is seen in approximately 64% of patients. Geographic areas of decreased perfusion present in areas that hypoventilated and appear as patches of relatively low attenuation that alternate with more-normal lung. Expiratory HRCT may be necessary to differentiate among different causes of mosaic patterns of lung attenuation.

Minimal intensity projection images of thin-section scans help in demonstrating a mosaic pattern of lung attenuation caused by small-airway disease. In healthy subjects, as much as 25% of the cross-sectional area of 1 section of lung can demonstrate airtrapping, whereas this rate can increase to 60-70% in patients with CF.

In patients with suspected small-airway disease, a 5-mm-thick minimal intensity projection image is advantageous because patients with dyspnea can perform a 5-second breath hold easier than a 10-second breath hold. Also, the use of 5-mm-thick minimal intensity projections reduces the radiation dose, as compared with the dose needed for 10-mm minimal intensity projections.⁸⁰

Bronchial wall thickening

CT scan allows visualization of the airways in the periphery beyond the level of segmental bronchi. Bronchial wall thickening is seen in approximately 48-76% of patients.

Bronchiectasis

Bronchiectasis is the most common individual CT abnormality and is seen in approximately 80% of patients, children or adults. Three forms of bronchiectasis may also be visualized, as in other causes of bronchiectasis: cylindrical, varicose, and cystic or saccular.

Cylindrical bronchiectasis is the most common pattern in CF. Bronchi retain their regular outline but are mildly dilated and fail to taper. Instead, they terminate abruptly with square ends. The most distal bronchi and bronchioles are plugged with secretions, but pathologically, the number of bronchial subdivisions is normal. Mucous plugging is seen in approximately 30-51% of patients.

Signs of bronchiectasis include the tubular shadows; tram tracks, or horizontally oriented bronchi; and the signet-ring sign, which is a vertically oriented bronchus with a luminal airway diameter that is 1.5 times the diameter of the adjacent pulmonary arterial branch.

Varicose bronchiectasis is marked by a greater degree of dilation combined with local ballooning of the airway. Bronchi have irregular outline, and the number of patent airway divisions is reduced from the normal of as many as 20 to about 6 or 7. Varicose bronchiectasis can appear as a string of pearls (a horizontally oriented bronchus).

Cystic or saccular bronchiectasis is seen as the disease progresses. This condition may include bronchial dilation over the lung periphery, and dilation of only 4-5 generations can appear as a cluster of cysts (especially with atelectasis) or with a honeycomb appearance. These cystic changes are in contrast to the blebs of emphysema, which are thinner walled and not accompanied by proximal airway abnormalities.

Some of the cysts may contain fluid, which indicates airway suppuration. In adults with CF, air-fluid levels in bronchiectatic cavities are the only parenchymal findings shown on HRCT scans.²⁷ This is limited to the acute exacerbation of CF, however this finding is fairly rare. Mucous plugging, centrilobular nodules, and peribronchial thickening are also potentially reversible findings in symptomatic patients.

In adults with newly diagnosed CF, bronchiectasis is predominantly central and also seen peripherally, with the most-severe bronchial dilatation in the upper lobes. A nodular or reticular-nodular pattern is characterized by a cluster of ill-defined nodules corresponding to the branching terminal airways filled with secretions. A centrilobular nodule or a tree-in-bud appearance can occur. A ground-glass pattern is a nonspecific sign of pneumonitis and/or bleeding. Parenchymal abnormalities are recognized in approximately 58% of patients; alveolar consolidation is more common than destructive changes. Hilar enlargement due to adenopathy or pulmonary hypertension may occur.

Overall, the severity and profusion of bronchial lesions and parenchymal destructive changes are unevenly distributed among the different regions, the upper parts of the lungs being more heavily involved than the lower parts, particularly on the right.

Previous investigators concluded that the HRCT pattern and distribution of abnormalities seen in patients with bronchiectasis are influenced by the underlying cause. Bilateral bronchiectasis that predominantly affects the upper lobes is most common in patients with CF and ABPA. Central bronchiectasis is a characteristic but not sensitive CT finding in patients with ABPA. Because ABPA can complicate the course of CF in about 10-15% of patients, differentiating these 2 diseases may be difficult with HRCT.

Generally, CF causes bilateral symmetric involvement, whereas ABPA is most commonly associated with bilateral and asymmetric involvement. Although a predilection for the middle lobe has been reported in the immotile cilia syndrome and in hypogammaglobulinemia, this finding alone is not sufficiently characteristic to differentiate these 2 diseases from CF. A unilateral upper-lobe predominance suggests tuberculosis, whereas a lower-lobe predominance suggests bronchiectasis after a childhood viral infection. Most importantly, the HRCT findings must be interpreted in the clinical context.

A multicenter trial by Lynch et al included 261 patients with symptomatic and physiologically significant bronchiectasis.⁸¹ The study showed that the degree of morphologic abnormalities on CT scans and the extent of physiologic impairment are weakly but significantly correlated. In a study of patients with CF, Helbich et al showed that serial CT scans allowed the assessment of the evolution of pulmonary abnormalities in a more sensitive way, compared with PFTs and clinical scoring, with a window of 6-18 months.⁸² However, the clinical effectiveness of CT in the follow-up of patients with CF has not yet been confirmed.

Pancreatic abnormalities

In the advanced stages of CF, the exocrine tissues of the pancreas are often completely replaced by fat. On CT scans, the pancreas is composed purely of fat, which is isoattenuating relative to the adjacent retroperitoneal fat. (This finding is in contrast to the fatty replacement in aged and obese individuals in whom a recognizable pancreatic parenchyma is present.)

Pancreatic fat replacement is the most common pattern in older patients with CF and is correlated with pancreatic exocrine dysfunction. The pancreas may become hypertrophied, or it may appear smaller than normal, although the shape of the pancreas is maintained. Other less-common CT findings in advanced CF include pancreatic cysts or calcifications, atrophy of the normal pancreatic tissue with less degrees of fatty replacement, and marked atrophy without fatty replacement. When cysts are present, they are typically 1-3 mm and rarely larger than 1 cm. Pancreatic cystosis occurs rarely. Despite the relatively common presence of pancreatic calcification, clinical pancreatitis in patients with CF is less common.

Hepatobiliary abnormalities

Images may show fatty infiltration of the liver or findings of liver cirrhosis. Gallbladder abnormalities are described elsewhere.

Colonic disease

Pickhardt et al performed a retrospective review of 26 patients with CF who underwent abdominal CT, mostly for the assessment of abdominal pain.⁸³ They identified colonic abnormalities in 10 patients.

Proximal thickening of the colon wall (mean thickness, 6.4 mm) without stricture was identified in all patients. Mural striation was found in 50% of patients. Pericolonic mesenteric fatty proliferation with involvement of the ascending colon was found in 60%. Soft tissue infiltration of the paracolonic fat was identified in all patients. No association was found between enzyme replacement therapy and colonic wall thickening. The sigmoid and ascending colon was involved in all patients with decreasing frequency of involvement of the transverse and descending colon. No skip lesions were seen in the small bowel or large bowel.

Meconium ileus

CT findings of meconium ileus include diffuse colonic thickening and no paracolonic changes. The frequency of Crohn disease has been reported to be increased in children and adults with CF. However, in many cases, the diagnosis is based on radiologic findings without histopathologic proof. Increased wall thickness, mural striation, and fatty mesenteric proliferation are associated with both diseases.

Generally, the mean wall thickness in Crohn colitis is about 11 mm, which is thicker than that observed in patients with CF. Small-bowel involvement is also more common (60%) in Crohn disease, in contrast with CF. Colonic involvement in Crohn disease may be right, left sided, or bilateral, whereas in CF, colonic disease is usually right sided, with a variable distal extent. Colonic involvement in CF lacks also other specific findings of Crohn disease such as sinus tracts, fistulas, and abscesses.

Other possible causes of colonic wall thickening in patients with CF include edema, lymphedema, and chronic inflammation.

Paranasal sinuses

Previous studies have shown 2 patterns of sinus disease in patients with CF: chronic sinusitis (headaches being the major complaint) and polyposis (patients have mostly nasal obstruction).

In a study of 116 patients with CF who were grouped according to the number of confirmed mutations, Eggesbo et al found that patients with genetically verified CF had less-developed sinuses, they lacked pneumatization variance, and they more commonly had anatomic variants that predisposed them to complications during function endoscopic sinus surgery.⁴³ The same group reported that hypoplasia of the sphenoid sinuses is a characteristic finding in patients with CF. They suggested that if pneumatization of the bases of sphenoid is present, the existing CF diagnosis should be questioned.

Overall, CT scans of CF patients are generally characterized by uncinate process demineralization, frequent frontal sinus agenesis, maxilloethmoid sinus opacification, and medial displacement of the lateral nasal wall in the middle meatus. Interestingly, the size of maxillary sinuses increases with advancing age in control subjects and in patients with chronic sinusitis, but not in patients with CF.

The main strength of CT of the sinuses in patients with CF is its ability to clarify the extent and localization of disease. This information can direct the surgeon to specific areas. Some studies emphasize that CT offers a more-precise evaluation of the extent of disease, compared with nasal endoscopy. In other studies, however, nasal sinus endoscopy offered additional information compared with CT, because CT cannot be used to differentiate mucosal thickening and infectious material.

At CT, all the soft tissue masses appear homogenous both before and after the injection of contrast material. Contrast enhancement of the soft tissue masses has not been demonstrated in previous studies, even if this phenomenon is said to be an indication of infection, including that due to recurrent sinusitis and pyomucocele. Therefore, the diagnosis of an infectious process in the paranasal sinuses, eg, pyocele, may be difficult if CT secondary changes (eg, expansion or erosion of the bone) are lacking. An air-fluid level is not common during CT imaging of the paranasal sinuses in patients with CF.

Degree of Confidence

Several authors have proposed grading systems by using HRCT findings. The most popular scoring system is the Bhalla system.⁸⁴ This is a 25-point merit system, and the scores can be interchanged with a Brasfield score in clinical classification systems. The presence, extent, and severity of bronchiectasis, peribronchial thickening, mucous plugging, atelectasis or consolidation, and emphysema are recorded. Despite the replacement of the nonspecific descriptors of the Brasfield system with a more accurately defined and quantified morphologic HRCT system, whether this new system will have practical use in the assessment of patients and therapeutic interventions is unclear.

False Positives/Negatives

Except for the previously mentioned causes of bronchiectasis that can mimic the HRCT manifestations of CF, interstitial diseases with fibrosis and traction bronchiectasis can create a similar honeycomb picture.

Inadequate collimation and motion artifacts are common pitfalls. Differentiating between cylindrical bronchiectasis and reversible bronchial dilation after pneumonia or atelectasis (ie, reversible or pseudobronchiectasis) is different. Mucoid impaction is seen as a tubular opacity and is occasionally confused with vessels.

Other conditions that can cause cystic spaces are emphysematous cysts with peribronchial inflammation, which may be seen in the course of severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). These conditions may have similar CT findings; however, their age distributions are different.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Findings

Initial reports suggested that MRI could be useful in the assessment of CF because of its ability to depict early mucus plugs and differentiate mucoid impaction from atelectasis or shadows caused by flowing blood. Subsequent studies showed that chest radiography is superior to MRI in assessing air-containing structures and hyperinflation. MRI can also be used to differentiate between hilar enlargement due to large nodes and enlargement due to large pulmonary arteries.

Recent developments have considerably improved anatomic MRI, and advanced new techniques in functional ventilation imaging include the use of inhaled aerosols, oxygen, and hyperpolarized noble gases (helium-3, xenon-129, fluorinated gases).⁸⁵ Images demonstrating homogeneity of ventilation and those helpful in determining ventilated lung volumes can be obtained. Furthermore, image-derived functional parameters such as airspace size, regional oxygen partial pressure, ventilation distributions, and ventilation/perfusion ratios can be measured.

The MRI technique applied to patients with airway diseases, such as patients with CF, may yield better sensitivity in the detection of ventilation defects, when findings from ventilation scintigraphy, chest CT or standard PFTs are not helpful. However, these uses are still experimental.

Magnetic resonance cholangiography

Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) has also been reported to be useful technique in the study of hepatobiliary disease in CF. MRCP depicts anomalies in all CF patients with the diagnosis of liver disease and reveals ductal lesions not revealed with other noninvasive techniques.

Perez-Aguilar et all found the following conditions in 10 of 15 adult patients with CF and no other liver disease: beaded contour of the hepatic ducts or common bile duct, stenosis of the common hepatic duct with rigidity of the intrahepatic ducts and irregularities in the caliber of the intrahepatic ducts without dilatation, and/or suspicious findings of intrahepatic lithiasis.⁸⁶

Especially because it is noninvasive, this technique can be useful in differentiating primary sclerosing cholangitis from bile-duct involvement due to CF.

MRI of the paranasal sinuses

MRI is superior to CT in differentiating soft tissue masses in the paranasal sinuses in patients with CF. These masses in the paranasal sinuses and middle meatus demonstrate heterogeneous signal intensity with all sequences. Contrast-enhanced T1-weighted images show contrast enhancement of the thickened mucosa in the sinuses and soft tissue masses; however, short-tau inversion recovery (STIR) images are superior in differentiating mucosal thickening from other material. P aeruginosa is frequently cultured from the areas with signal void on the STIR images; this signal void is known as the black-hole sign.

One study included 62 patients with CF and ethmomaxillary sinus disease (as seen at CT) who underwent MRI of the paranasal sinuses. In these patients, 3 major types of maxillary sinuses were distinguished: an air-filled sinus lumen, an oval-shaped pus-filled sinus lumen, and streaky-shaped pus-filled sinus lumen. For air-filled maxillary sinuses with mucosal thickening, CT and MR imaging were diagnostically equivalent. When CT showed homogenous opacification of the maxillary sinuses, MRI findings differentiate thickening mucosa and pus-filled areas. Patients who had undergone functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) most commonly had air-filled or streaky-shaped pus-filled maxillary sinus lumen. In patients who did not undergo surgery, an oval-shaped pus-filled sinus lumen was most common and could occur without ethmoid disease.

Because MRI of the paranasal sinuses can be used to differentiate infectious material and thickening mucosa, it could be used to select patients in whom pus-filled areas might be eradicated with FESS.

Ultrasonography

Findings

Dietrich et al have reported the use of high-resolution mediastinal sonography in assessing the total lymph node volume in the paratracheal region and in using the aortopulmonary window as a marker of inflammatory disease activity in CF patients.⁸⁷

Pancreatic abnormalities

The pancreas is usually echogenic as a result of fatty replacement and fibrosis of the exocrine portion of the gland. It is typically smaller than normal; however, at times, it may be enlarged. Ductal ectasia, cysts, or multiple foci of calcification may also be seen.

Hepatobiliary abnormalities

Fatty infiltration of the liver is commonly seen, and gallbladder abnormalities are found during ultrasonographic examination of approximately one third of patients with CF. A microgallbladder may be seen; this is caused by atresia or obstruction of the cystic duct resulting from mucosal hyperplasia or inspissated mucous.

Cholelithiasis, choledocholithiasis, thickening of the gallbladder wall, and gallbladder sludge may be found, singly or in combination. Abnormalities of the intrahepatic biliary tree, which resemble those of sclerosing cholangitis, may also be seen in patients with CF-related liver disease. Occasionally, abdominal sonography helps in the diagnosis of appendicular mucocele.⁸⁸

Doppler echocardiography

Doppler echocardiography imaging has been used in the assessment of severe CF. This technique can show common subclinical right ventricular dysfunction, which is correlated with the severity of lung disease, with impairment of both systolic and diastolic right ventricular functions. No specific left ventricular function abnormalities were detected.⁸⁹ Two-dimensional echo Doppler imaging is also useful in the preoperative assessment of patients who are candidates for lung transplantation.^90,91

Prenatal ultrasonography

Prenatal ultrasonographic findings include a hyperechoic fetal bowel pattern with an echogenicity similar to or greater than that of the fetal bone. This finding is suggestive of intestinal obstruction. It can appear as a benign variant, usually before the third trimester, followed in that case by spontaneous resolution. CF has been detected in 5% of cases with fetal hyperechogenic bowel.⁹² The differential diagnosis also includes Down syndrome and other chromosomal abnormalities, influenza infection, and amniotic fluid in the blood.

Nuclear Imaging

Findings

The role of lung scintigraphy in patients with CF is not clear. A normal chest image and a normal technetium Tc 99m perfusion scan essentially rule out bronchiectasis. In children with recurrent respiratory problems, lung scintigraphy frequently shows regional abnormalities, even in the absence of radiologic signs. The main problem is the correct clinical use of a test with such a high sensitivity and the high percentage of false-positive results.

In patients with CF, nuclear scanning has been reported to be a useful diagnostic modality in infants with a prolonged jaundice, in those unresponsive to choleretics, and in those with known dilated bile ducts in gallbladder (as shown on sonograms). In a study by Greenholz et al, the absence of biliary excretion on nuclear scans was used to identify neonates with microscopically normal bile ducts but an inspissated bile syndrome produced by cholestasis secondary to plugging.⁹³ In these neonates, surgical exploration is warranted. Technetium 99m mebrofenin scintigraphy of the liver has also been successfully used in CF patients to rule out hepatobiliary disease.⁹⁴

Other applications include dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry as a tool of determining bone mineral density (BMD). Elkin et al examined 107 patients with CF by using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry of the lumbar spine and hip, as well as radiology of the spine and biochemical studies.⁷⁹ The study was performed to determine the prevalence of low BMD and vertebral deformities in adults with CF. They found that 38% had a Z score of less than -1, with 13% having Z scores of less than -2. Of the patients, 17% had evidence of a vertebral deformity on radiographs; the deformities were mostly in the thoracic spine. In addition, 35% reported past fractures. The investigators found that the number of courses of intravenous antibiotics that the patients received in the previous 5 years was negatively related to BMD. They concluded that fragility fractures are common in adults with CF.

Low BMD occurs in patients with more-severe disease and is significantly related to FEV₁, infective exacerbations, and the daily energy expended in physical activity. Total BMD is also decreased in prepubertal children with mild lung disease and bears no relationship with the degree of lung disease, the degree of fat malabsorption, the level of physical activity, and the dietary energy intake.

The short and narrow bones are the main reasons for reduced BMD and for a reduced bone mineral content in patients younger than 19 years. This finding indicates that the treatment to prevent osteoporosis in younger patients should be directed at increasing bone size, whereas conventional treatment with calcium and vitamin D supplementation might not be as effective. The significant decrease in BMD and bone mineral content (BMC) in young adult patients raises the concern that these patients will develop premature osteoporotic fractures.

In a study by Cremaschi et al, the effects of bronchial artery embolization (BAE) were reviewed in a group of 209 patients, 16% of whom had CF.⁹⁵ They reported that all of the cases of hemoptysis were controlled in the first 48 hours; 16% of the relapses occurred within the first year. These authors underline the value of selective digital angiography in reducing the catheterization time, the mean quantity of contrast material administered, and the number of adverse effects.

Angiography

Findings

Bronchial arteriography has a role in detecting the bleeding site. It is also useful in subsequent embolotherapy in patients with advanced CF and major or persistent and significant hemoptysis.

Intervention

Possible radiologic interventions in pulmonary CF include BAE, treatment with glycerin and amphotericin B, and bronchography.

BAE is a relatively safe and effective treatment of significant hemoptysis in patients with CF.⁹⁶

Brinson et al reviewed a 10-year experience in the treatment of hemoptysis in 18 patients with CF.⁹⁷ The treatment included 36 BAE procedures for the control of hemoptysis. Most patients had severe lung disease (FEV₁ < 35%) with a high incidence of infection with multidrug-resistant bacteria. The overall effectiveness of BAE for the initial control of hemoptysis was 75% after 1 session, 89% after 2 sessions, and 93% after 3 sessions.

The patients were followed up for a mean of approximately 22 months after BAE. The overall recurrence rate per episode was 46%, with a mean time for recurrence of approximately 12 months. The incidence of bleeding from nonbronchial systemic collateral vessels was high among patients who had undergone previous BAE. Also reported are 2 deaths associated with massive hemoptysis despite BAE and 3 patients with transient neurologic deficits during BAE (transverse myelitis).⁹⁸

The direct intracavitary percutaneous instillation of glycerin and amphotericin B with CT guidance has shown promise in the treatment of symptomatic patients with mycetoma (aspergilloma) as complication of a preexisting cavity with extensive bronchiectasis. In a study of 15 patients with bronchiectasis, the palliation of hemoptysis and sputum production occurred, with the diminishment or disappearance in serum precipitins.

As the criterion standard as a diagnostic tool for bronchiectasis, bronchography has been almost completely replaced by HRCT. Indications for bronchography may still exist in select surgical candidates in whom CT shows predominant segmental or unilateral involvement.⁹⁹

Moran et al compared noninvasive ventilation (NIV) with no NIV in patients with cystic fibrosis. In a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials that compared a pressure preset or volume preset NIV with no NIV in cystic fibrosis patients with respiratory failure, the authors found that airway clearance may be easier with NIV and that patients with CF may have a preference for it. They concluded that NIV may be a useful adjunctive therapy to other airway-clearance approaches. In addition, in patients with moderate to severe disease, NIV used along with oxygen may improve gas exchange, as compared with oxygen therapy alone, while such patients are sleeping.¹⁰⁰

Medicolegal Pitfalls

• Failure to suspect CF in young children with either normal chest radiographic findings or hyperinflation and/or atelectasis and an asthmalike presentation
• Failure to suspect CF in an adult with mild respiratory disease and/or obscure liver disease, occasionally with a lack of respiratory symptoms
• Failure to consider and differentiate conditions related to CF that are superimposed on bronchiectasis, eg, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, a mycetoma formed in preexisting cavity, or an atypical mycobacterial infection
• Failure to consider and differentiate any other causes of bronchiectasis associated with chronic sinopulmonary disease and azoospermia in a teenager or young adult (Examples include Young syndrome, or immotile cilia syndrome.)
• Failure to consider the diagnosis, because the patient is not white, looks too healthy, or has normal pancreatic function.

Multimedia

Media file 1: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Young man with a history of cystic fibrosis has hyperinflation and predominantly upper lobe bronchiectasis.

Media file 2: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Lateral chest radiograph (same patient as in Image above) shows flattened hemidiaphragms, increased retrosternal clear space (overaeration).

Media file 3: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Patient with history of cystic fibrosis has bilateral bronchiectasis, most pronounced in the upper lobes along with left upper lung atelectasis.

Media file 4: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Patient with a history of cystic fibrosis has complete right lung atelectasis with extreme bronchiectasis. Marked hyperinflation of the left lung is noted.

Media file 5: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Image in a 27-year-old tennis player with a history of cystic fibrosis and only minimal symptoms exhibits bronchial wall thickening, bilateral small nodular opacities, and scoliosis.

Media file 6: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT scan in same patient as in Image 5 in Multimedia shows moderately extensive bronchiectasis at the level of the upper lobes.

Media file 7: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Coned-down views of each upper lobe in a 26-year-old mother of 2 children with history of cystic fibrosis and mild symptoms demonstrates nodular opacities, which presumably represent ectatic bronchi and mucus plugging.

Media file 8: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT scan of each upper lobe in the same patient as in Image 7 in Multimedia confirms thick bronchial walls, bronchiectasis, and inspissated mucus in ectatic bronchi.

Media file 9: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Erect abdominal radiograph shows multiple, small intestinal fluid levels in association with localized bubbly fecal material in the right lower quadrant. These were due to distal intestinal obstruction syndrome in a patient with cystic fibrosis.

Media file 10: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT image shows bronchial wall thickening (tram lines), predominantly in the upper lobes.

Media file 11: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Focal overaeration in the left upper lobe of a patient with cystic fibrosis. Thick-walled bronchi in the affected area are seen. The focal overaeration probably indicates air-trapping and bronchiolitis obliterans.

Media file 12: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Bronchiectatic changes with segmental right middle lobe and left lower lobe atelectasis in a patient with cystic fibrosis.

Media file 13: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. String-of-pearls sign in the left lower lobe in a patient with cystic fibrosis. The soft tissue surrounding each "pearl" indicates focal atelectatic, fibrotic lung.

Media file 14: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. Dilated bronchi with thickened wall are depicted bilaterally. Mucoid impaction is the cause of the soft tissue density within the ectatic bronchi in the left lower lobe.

Media file 15: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. In this patient with cystic fibrosis, bronchiolar mucous plugging is noted in the left upper lobe.

Media file 16: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. CT image shows a peribronchial ground glass opacity and hyperinflation in a patient with cystic fibrosis during an acute febrile illness, which responded to antibiotics. This pattern is an example of acute pneumonia.

Media file 17: Cystic fibrosis, thoracic. High-resolution CT image in a patient with a history of cystic fibrosis and acute chest pain shows cystic and cylindrical bronchiectasis, as well as a large air space with an air-fluid level in the right upper lobe and subcutaneous emphysema. Extrapulmonary air, including pneumothorax, is a common complication in the presence of large air pockets (cysts).

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Keywords

cystic fibrosis, CF, mucoviscidosis, hyperplastic airway epithelium, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, CFTR, chronic airway obstruction, distal intestinal obstruction syndrome, DIOS

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Eleni Giannouli, MD, Consulting Staff, Assistant Professor, Section of Respirology and Critical Care, Department of Critical Care,Winnipeg Regional Health Authority Health Sciences Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC, Professor and Head, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba; Site Director, Respiratory Medicine, St. Boniface General Hospital
Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Thoracic Society, Canadian Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Royal Society of Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and World Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Bruce Maycher, MD, Director of Pulmonary Radiology, St Boniface General Hospital; Associate Professor, Department of Radiology, University of Manitoba
Bruce Maycher, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Roentgen Ray Society, Canadian Medical Association, Radiological Society of North America, and Society of Thoracic Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Judith K Amorosa, MD, FACR, Clinical Professor and Program Director, Department of Radiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School; Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital
Judith K Amorosa, MD, FACR is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Radiology, American Roentgen Ray Society, Association of University Radiologists, Radiological Society of North America, and Society of Thoracic Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Bernard D Coombs, MB, ChB, PhD, Consulting Staff, Department of Specialist Rehabilitation Services, Hutt Valley District Health Board, New Zealand
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Managing Editor

Eric J Stern, MD, Professor of Radiology, Adjunct Professor of Medicine, Adjunct Professor of Medical Education and Biomedical Informatics, University of Washington School of Medicine; Director of Thoracic Imaging, Harborview Medical Center; Associate Medical Staff, Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Eric J Stern, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Roentgen Ray Society, Association of University Radiologists, European Society of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America, and Society of Thoracic Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Robert M Krasny, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, Resolution Imaging Medical Corporation
Robert M Krasny, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Roentgen Ray Society and Radiological Society of North America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Eugene C Lin, MD, Consulting Radiologist, Virginia Mason Medical Center; Clinical Assistant Professor of Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine
Eugene C Lin, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Nuclear Medicine, American College of Radiology, Radiological Society of North America, and Society of Nuclear Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Related eMedicine topics

Cystic Fibrosis (Otolaryngology)

Cystic Fibrosis (Pediatrics)

Clinical guidelines

Newborn screening for cystic fibrosis: evaluation of benefits and risks and recommendations for state newborn screening programs. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Federal Government Agency [U.S.].  2004 Oct 15.  37 pages.  NGC:003919

Cystic fibrosis prenatal screening in genetic counseling practice: recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. National Society of Genetic Counselors - Medical Specialty Society.  2005 Feb.  15 pages.  NGC:004727

Infant/toddler pulmonary function tests-2008 revision & update. American Association for Respiratory Care - Professional Association.  1995 Jul (revised 2008 Jul).  17 pages.  NGC:006698

Pulmonary rehabilitation: joint ACCP/AACVPR evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation - Medical Specialty Society
American College of Chest Physicians - Medical Specialty Society.  1997 (revised 2007 May).  39 pages.  NGC:005669

Clinical trials

Early Intervention in Pulmonary Exacerbation in Cystic Fibrosis

Can Quantitative Ultrasound be Used for the Evaluation of Bone Health in Adolescents and Adults With Cystic Fibrosis

The Effect of rhDNase on Ventilation Inhomogeneity in Patients With Cystic Fibrosis

FDG-PET Imaging in Young Cystic Fibrosis Patients

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