Radiography
Findings
Plain abdominal radiograph in a 65-year-old man presenting with acute abdominal pain and the passage of blood per rectum. Note the thumbprinting in the region of the splenic flexure and also the proximal small-bowel dilatation.
Left: Plain abdominal radiograph in a 58-year-old man who underwent an upper GI barium study for nonspecific dyspepsia a few days earlier. The patient presented with vague abdominal discomfort and the passage of blood per rectum. Note the thumbprinting in the region of the distal transverse colon and splenic flexure. Right: Another radiograph obtained 24 hours later shows mild dilatation of the distal transverse colon with more obvious mucosal edema.
Six days later, the clinical condition of the patient seen in Image above deteriorated, with increasing abdominal pain and signs of peritonism. Note the bowel relief sign. At surgery, a perforated ischemic bowel segment at the splenic flexure was confirmed.
Left: Chest radiograph of a 45-year-old woman with mitral valve disease and atrial fibrillation who presented with acute abdominal symptoms. Note the cardiomegaly and blood diversion in the upper lobe, which is suggestive of cardiac decompensation. Right: Plain radiograph shows several dilated loops of the jejunum. Note also the stricture of the proximal transverse colon. At surgery, a gangrenous small bowel loop secondary to a mesenteric artery embolus was resected. The patient had a similar episode a year earlier, which was managed conservatively; this approach accounts for the ischemic stricture of the proximal transverse colon.
Plain supine abdominal radiograph in a 72-year-old man who presented with bloody diarrhea. Note the thumbprinting of the splenic flexure and the entire descending colon.
Postoperative abdominal radiograph in a 26-year-old patient who had stabbed himself, cutting across the jejunum. The injury was repaired on an emergency basis. After laparotomy, his recovery was slow, and he had bloody diarrhea. Colonoscopy revealed a hemorrhagic edematous mucosa of the splenic flexure suggestive of ischemic colitis. Note the thumbprinting of the distal transverse colon. See also Image 16 in Multimedia.
Plain radiographic features include the following:
- Dilatation of a part of the colon may be seen early. The appearance may be not unlike that of ulcerative colitis with mucosal edema (thumbprinting) and pseudopolyp formation (see Images above and Images 5-10, 13-15 in Multimedia).
- When both the small bowel and the large bowel are affected by ischemic injury, the small bowel may also become dilated with thickening of the valvulae conniventes.
- Over time, the haustra become thickened and edematous, and it contains a large amount of secretions.
- With further edema, the haustral markings disappear completely, and the colon acquires a hoselike appearance.
- Localized pneumatosis coli may be apparent.
- Eventual tubular narrowing and stricturing appear over a long segment.
Findings on barium enema examination may include the following:
- A rapid sequence of events usually occurs over several weeks after an initial ischemic insult. The events can progress from the early stages of spasm and edema to chronic stricture formation.
- Barium enema examination during the acute stage of a vascular insult demonstrates spasm associated with thickening and blunting of the mucosal folds. Multiple mucosal scalloping or thumbprinting are seen along the contours of the bowel. Seen en face, the thumbprints appear as polypoid filling defects (see Images below and Images 2-4 in Multimedia).
Double-contrast barium enema study shows a stricture of the proximal descending colon secondary to ischemia.
Erect radiograph obtained after a double-contrast barium enema study shows a stricture at the splenic flexure.
Postevacuation image obtained after a barium enema study shows extensive thumbprinting involving the entire colon, secondary to mesenteric ischemia.
- With further progression of mucosal edema, the folds become thickened and ill defined.
- Intraluminal secretions are increased.
- Ulcerations are frequently observed in pathologic specimens of the diseased bowel segment. However, these may not be deep enough to be demonstrable radiologically. With diffuse ulceration, the mucosa may be completely effaced. Ulcers may be seen as a serrated mucosa. Deep ulcers are a late finding.
- During the healing phase, when fibrosis sets in, associated flattening and rigidity of 1 wall may be observed. The antimesenteric border of the colon becomes pleated because of scarring; this may appear as sacculations or pseudodiverticula.
- With a continuing fibrotic process, the affected segment of the large bowel acquires a tubular shape with smooth contours and a concentric lumen.
- The final outcome is usually a long stricture with proximal bowel dilatation. However, when a stricture develops, it is shorter than the original length of the ischemic bowel, as seen radiologically.
- In the stages before fibrosis develops, partial or complete recovery may occur. The ischemic process may be arrested at any of the previously described stages.
Degree of Confidence
The plain radiographic findings may be entirely normal, particularly early in the disease. However, the results of barium enema are abnormal in 90% of patients with ischemic colitis.
False Positives/Negatives
Inflammatory bowel disease, infective colitides, and carcinoma may mimic ischemic colitis. The stricture formation in ischemic colonic disease is smooth and tapering, with a concentric lumen and without shouldering or contour defects. Sacculations are common in ischemic colitis, but skip lesions are rare. In inflammatory bowel disease, cobblestoning, skip lesions, and small punched-out ulcers are common features. In colonic carcinoma, the narrowing is eccentric and associated with shouldering. In the early stages, contour defects may be observed.
In some cases of ischemic colitis, extensive mucosal ulceration may simulate a lymphosarcoma on a barium enema study.
Computed Tomography
Findings
Axial contrast-enhanced CT scans of the same patient as in Image 15 in Multimedia shows that the superior mesenteric vein is larger than the aorta. Lower CT section (left) shows a fistula between the superior mesenteric artery and the vein through a pseudoaneurysm, which was the cause of global mesenteric ischemia due to a steal phenomenon. After surgical repair of the arteriovenous communication, the patient fully recovered.
Series of contrast-enhanced CT scans (see Images 17-32 in Multimedia) on a 72-year-old man presenting with acute abdominal pain. Surgery revealed mesenteric ischemia, mainly in the right and transverse colon, secondary to peripheral mesenteric thrombosis (arrow). Note the colonic edema akin to thumb printing on plain abdominal radiographs. Multiple hypoattenuating masses in the liver were due to liver abscesses. Moderate ascites is present.
Series of enhanced CT scans (see Images 17-32 in Multimedia) in the same patient.
Series of enhanced CT scans (see Images 17-32 in Multimedia) in the same patient.
Series of enhanced CT scans (see Images 17-32 in Multimedia) in the same patient.
CT has been used as a diagnostic tool in patients with suspected intestinal ischemia. CT not only depicts changes in the blood vessels but also shows changes in the bowel wall, often in association with ancillary abdominal findings. Contrast-enhanced CT also provides information regarding the hemodynamics of blood flow to the bowel (see Images above and Images 16-32 in Multimedia).34,27,28,29,30,35
The specific CT signs for establishing the diagnosis of bowel ischemia depend on the degree of ischemia, the length of bowel loops involved, and whether both the large bowel and small bowel are affected. Findings may include the following:
- Thromboembolism in the mesenteric vessels
- Intramural or portal venous gas
- Segmental thickening of the bowel wall
- Absence of bowel wall enhancement with contrast-enhanced CT
- Irregular narrowing of the bowel lumen as a result of mucosal edema (thumbprinting)
- Possible bowel dilatation proximal to the ischemic segment of the bowel
- Nonspecific signs of bowel ischemia, including bowel obstruction, mesenteric edema, mesenteric vascular engagement, and ascites
Degree of Confidence
CT is regarded as a valuable noninvasive tool in the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia. Conflicting reports have appeared in the radiology literature regarding the sensitivity of CT in the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia. Earlier reports showed a poor sensitivity of around 39%. However, more recent reports involving high-quality infusion techniques resulted in a higher sensitivity of 64-82%. This improved sensitivity is partly related to improved detection rates of more specific signs, such as direct visualization of thromboembolism in the mesenteric vessels and the lack of visualization of bowel-wall enhancement.
False Positives/Negatives
High-quality images are usually difficult to acquire because of the poor general condition of these patients. CT appears to be significantly limited in detecting small peripheral mesenteric emboli. Some of the well-known CT features of mesenteric ischemia, such as diffuse bowel dilatation, bowel wall thickening, ascites, mesenteric haziness, and vascular engorgement, are elicited in only 36% of the patients. Some of the CT findings are nonspecific and may be found in inflammatory bowel disease.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Findings
Ha et al showed that the sensitivity of MRI in the detection of bowel ischemia is comparable to that of CT.31 MRI may be useful in depicting bowel-wall changes and in demonstrating mesenteric vascular abnormalities. As with CT, the additional use of contrast enhancement allows an assessment of the dynamic changes in the bowel wall.32
Degree of Confidence
MRI is as sensitive as CT in the diagnosis of bowel wall ischemia, and it has the added advantage of not using ionizing radiation. Some researchers have attempted cine phase-contrast MRI for the quantitation of mesenteric blood flow.33 They measured blood flow in the SMA 30 minutes after the patient ate a meal and found promising criteria for differentiating healthy patients from those with chronic intestinal ischemia.
False Positives/Negatives
MRI has significant problems in depicting small thromboembolism in small mesenteric vessels.
Ultrasonography
Findings
Bowel gas frequently prevents the visualization of colonic changes, which are usually most marked around the splenic flexure. In the initial stages, the ischemic bowel may show increased peristalsis, which is then reduced. The bowel wall becomes thickened, and nodular and intramural hemorrhage and edema give rise to areas of reduced echogenicity. Echogenic areas may be seen in the bowel wall; these may reflect either areas of infarction infiltrate or clot. Echogenic areas with shadowing occur as a result of intramural gas. Gas may also be detected in the portal vein; this is a poor prognostic sign.
Doppler color flow imaging is performed after the patient fasts overnight to minimize bowel gas. The patient is usually scanned in a supine position with the head slightly elevated to allow the abdominal viscera to descend. To identify the celiac axis and the SMA, the aorta is scanned in the sagittal left paramedian plane, starting at the xiphisternum. The SMA is 1-2 cm distal to the celiac axis; however, the 2 may have a common origin.
Before Doppler studies of the SMA and celiac axis are performed, a Doppler velocity signal in the aorta is obtained at the level of the celiac axis and the SMA at a 60° angle. The aorta is scanned for atheroma, dissection, and aneurysm. Color flow and spectral analysis are used to detect flow disturbances. The peak systolic aortic velocity is recorded, after which velocity measurements are made at the origins of the celiac axis and the SMA.
Care should be taken when recording Doppler time-velocity waveforms at the origins of the celiac axis and the SMA because the insonation angle may be inadvertently increased beyond 60°. Both the celiac axis and the SMA should be examined during both inspiration and expiration to distinguish extrinsic disease (eg, compression of median arcuate ligament of the diaphragm on the celiac axis) from intrinsic disease (atheroma).36,37
Evaluation of the celiac axis
Color flow Doppler sonography is effective in demonstrating flow disturbances associated with tortuosity and stenosis at the origin of the celiac axis. Doppler spectral waveforms in a normal celiac axis after fasting demonstrate a forward flow with an average peak systolic velocity of 123 cm/s ± 9 in persons aged 48-79 years. A significant increase in the systolic or diastolic flow velocity occurs after a meal.
This increase is also reflected in the hepatic and splenic arteries. The average postprandial systolic velocity 30 minutes after a meal of 355 K cal is 132 cm/s ± 7. In the presence of a 60% stenosis of the celiac axis, the peak velocity is increased to 167-208 cm/s ± 9. With this degree of stenosis, color Doppler imaging demonstrates a high-velocity jet at the stenotic site associated with poststenotic turbulent flow.
The potential for collateralization between the celiac axis, SMA, and IMA is remarkable. As a result, the peak systolic velocity in the celiac axis may be lower or much higher than expected when concomitant SMA occlusion is present. This variation may result in the overestimation or underestimation of the extent of ischemic disease.
Evaluation of the SMA
After fasting, the SMA has low diastolic flow. However, after a meal, both the peak systolic and end-diastolic velocities are significantly increased if arterial stenosis is absent. The normal fasting SMA velocities are 128 cm/s ± 16 in persons aged 23-42 years. After a meal, the peak systolic velocity increases to 162 cm/s ± 11; the end-diastolic velocity is in the range of 48 cm/s ± 7 within 15 minutes after the meal. The peak systolic velocity almost doubles within 45 minutes after a meal. With significant SMA stenosis, the peak systolic velocity exceeds 270 cm/s, with a concomitant increase in diastolic flow.
Color flow Doppler imaging shows a jet through the stenotic segment with turbulent flow downstream, which continues for some distance.
Degree of Confidence
Ultrasonography is a sensitive yet noninvasive technique that may provide useful information about mesenteric ischemia. Images may demonstrate absent or barely visible color flow, absent arterial signals, and thickened bowel-wall loops. Doppler techniques are particularly useful for investigating chronic mesenteric ischemia.
False Positives/Negatives
Limitations of Doppler analysis of celiac artery and SMA ischemia include the following: (1) there is great potential for collateralization in the splanchnic vessels, which may make an assessment of a single-vessel stenosis difficult; (2) the risk of error increases when the angle of insonation is greater than 60°; and (3) careful placement of the sample volume is crucial. The SMA must be examined throughout the visualized vessel; otherwise, a false-negative diagnosis may result.
Gas-filled dilated bowel in ileus or small bowel obstruction may prevent adequate visualization of the vasculature.
Nuclear Imaging
Findings
Stathaki et al evaluated the use of pentavalent techenetium-99m dimercaptosuccinic acid [Tc-99m (V) DMSA] in the diagnosis of ischemic colitis in 14 patients with endoscopically and histologically confirmed ischemic colitis. Tc-99m (V) DMSA scintigraphy was performed within 2 days after colonoscopy, and images were considered positive when an area of increased activity was observed in the region of interest and considered negative when no abnormal tracer uptake was detected. In 3 of the 14 patients, Tc-99m (V) DMSA images showed moderate activity in the bowel. In the other 11 patients, no abnormal tracer uptake was detected in the abdomen and, therefore, the use of Tc-99m (V) DMSA could not be considered successful in the diagnosis of ischemic colitis.11
Angiography
Findings
Digital subtracted superior mesenteric angiogram in a 63-year-old woman known to have a hilar cholangiocarcinoma (note the biliary stent) who presented with a sudden onset of abdominal pain and distension. This frame from the angiogram shows a sharp cut-off of the superior mesenteric artery secondary to an acute thrombosis. This patient underwent thrombolysis, with a satisfactory outcome.
This 63-year-old man had smoked more than 30 cigarettes a day for over 40 years and gave a 3-year history of claudication. Recently, he presented with the passage of mucus and blood per rectum. Flexible sigmoidoscopy revealed a hemorrhagic edematous mucosa with superficial ulceration at the rectosigmoid junction suggestive of ischemic colitis. A flush aortogram showed only the origin of the superior mesenteric artery, but the celiac artery and the inferior artery origins were not identified. A selective superior mesenteric artery angiogram shows retrograde filling of the celiac axis and antegrade filling of the inferior mesenteric artery. Note the arch of Riolan. The image on the right is a manual subtraction image of the angiogram on the left.
Normal inferior mesenteric angiogram in a 53-year-old man.
Normal venous phase of an inferior mesenteric angiogram (same patient as in Image 11 in Multimedia).
Immediately after an ischemic insult to the colon, the appearance may be normal unless vascular occlusion is present (see Images above and Images 11-12 in Multimedia). With an increasing colonic inflammatory response, the following may be observed: dilated arteries, prominent accumulation of contrast material in the bowel parenchymal, and dense and early venous filling. The arteriovenous transit time may be accelerated. The venous phase of a superior or inferior mesenteric angiogram may depict small ectatic draining veins.
In cases of superior or inferior mesenteric vein thrombosis, the veins may not be visualized, and collateral venous filling may be depicted. Superior or inferior mesenteric arteriovenous fistulas are readily identified with angiography. A vascular steal syndrome is usually diagnosed by means of inferior mesenteric angiography.
Degree of Confidence
Angiography has a limited role in the diagnosis of colonic ischemia; however, for a few specific indications, angiography may be invaluable (see Findings above).
False Positives/Negatives
In established colonic ischemia, no angiographic changes may be observed, or the angiographic changes may be indistinguishable from those of inflammatory bowel disease. Also, the severity of the ischemic insult and the angiographic changes appear to be poorly correlated.
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Further Reading
Related eMedicine topics
Colitis, Pseudomembranous
Necrotizing Enterocolitis
Ulcerative Colitis
Keywords
colitis, ischemic colitis, reversible vascular occlusion of the colon, mesenteric ischemia, intestinal necrosis, mesenteric thrombosis, mesenteric infarction, transmural infarction, mucosal infarction, mural infarction
