eMedicine Specialties > Radiology > Vascular/Interventional

Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity: Follow-up

Author: Eric K Hoffer, MD, Director, Vascular and Interventional Radiology, Associate Professor of Radiology, Section of Angiography and Interventional Radiology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center
Coauthor(s): John J Borsa, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, St Joseph Medical Center
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Apr 10, 2009

Intervention

Image-guided therapy

Percutaneous transcatheter treatment of patients with DVT consists of thrombus removal with CDT, mechanical thrombectomy, angioplasty, and/or stenting of venous obstructions. Patients may or may not be given PE prophylaxis by means of filter placement in the IVC. The lack of data from multicenter prospective randomized trial data regarding the safety and efficacy of these therapies complicated the decision to intervene and the choice of intervention. Problems in the existing literature are variability in patient selection and the lack of standard definitions of short- or long-term efficacy and complications. A consensus regarding indications exists, though it is based on mid-level evidence from nonrandomized controlled trials.

Goals of endovascular therapy include reducing the severity and duration of lower-extremity symptoms, preventing PE, diminishing the risk of recurrent venous thrombosis, and preventing PTS. When an invasive procedure is considered, the benefit must be weighed against the added risk compared with standard anticoagulant therapy. If it is to be performed, the intervention must improve the results of current medical therapy. The risk of PE is 2%, the risk of recurrent DVT is 4%, and the risk of major bleeding is 5%. Most difficult to discern, the risk of PTS is 45% at 2 years.

Asymptomatic DVT is not considered an indication for endovascular intervention at this time. The incidence of PTS at 5 years after asymptomatic calf or proximal DVT is low at 5%.57 The absence of symptoms may reflect the lack of the obstructive effect that is proposed to initiate the insufficiency. Although the incidence of PTS may not warrant treatment, some reports suggest that treatment of asymptomatic DVT may be necessary to prevent most cases of PE that are diagnosed at autopsy. Asymptomatic proximal DVT had a mortality risk of 13.7% versus 2% in patients without DVT.

Catheter-directed thrombolysis

Indications

Indications for intervention include the relatively rare phlegmasia or symptomatic IVC thrombosis that responds poorly to anticoagulation alone, or symptomatic iliofemoral or femoropopliteal DVT in patients with a low risk of bleeding. In the last groups, the goal is to reduce the high risk of PTS or to achieve symptomatic relief in conjunction with angioplasty or stent placement.

Phlegmasia cerulea dolens is an indication for emergency CDT in patients with moderate or low bleeding risks. This recommendation is based on reports of limb salvage without the high rates of limb amputation and death when alternative therapies are used.58 In patients with a high risk for hemorrhagic complications, surgical thrombectomy remains an effective option, though it often results in incomplete thrombus removal, recurrent DVT, and an increased incidence of systemic complications.

Acute or subacute IVC thrombosis that causes at least moderate pelvic congestion, limb symptoms, or compromised visceral venous drainage warrants CDT. Involvement of the suprarenal cava, renal veins, and/or hepatic veins may precipitate acute renal or hepatic failure. Thrombus that involves the upper IVC may make it impossible to place an IVC filter for PE prophylaxis.

Subacute and chronic iliofemoral DVT is accompanied by moderate-to-severe pelvic or limb symptoms with a low bleeding risk. Because of recanalization of the iliac vein is unlikely, iliofemoral DVT often produces valvular reflux. This combination of outflow obstruction and reflux is associated with the most symptomatic forms of PTS. In this situation, patients have venous damage, and the alternative is venous bypass. In these instances, CDT is seldom expected to completely clear the vein, but it is often used to remove any acute component of thrombus and to uncover chronic stenoses or underlying anatomic abnormality as an adjunct to angioplasty or stent placement. Compared with systemic thrombolysis, CDT improves the preservation of valve competence (44% vs 13%).

The indication for CDT in the relatively common event of acute iliofemoral or femoropopliteal DVT is somewhat controversial. CDT may be superior to anticoagulation with regard to decreasing the incidence of recurrent DVT and PTS. However, the evidence is not conclusive. CDT improves thrombus clearance compared with systemic thrombolysis. Few DVT resolve after heparin therapy, but systemic thrombolysis improves the rate to 30%, and CDT removes e80% of thrombi.59 Reports of CDT for the management of acute DVT between 1994 and 2004 described anatomic and clinical success rates of 76-100%. The incidence of major hemorrhagic complications was 0-24%.

A prospective registry of 287 patients treated with a mean 53-hour urokinase (uPA) infusion showed anatomic success in 83%. About 34% of patients received adjunctive stent placement for underlying lesions. Complications of major bleeding and rethrombosis were observed in 11% and 25% of patients, respectively, at 30-day follow-up.60,61

A randomized trial in which surgical thrombectomy with anticoagulation was compared with anticoagulation alone demonstrated the early clearance of thrombus to reduce PTS. At 10-year follow-up of the surgical versus anticoagulation cohorts, the rate of lower-extremity swelling was 18% and 71%, respectively, whereas the incidence of ulceration was 8% and 18%, respectively. Any clinical advantage for rapid clearance with CDT (similar to surgical thrombectomy) relies on a demonstration that outcomes reflect a similar reduction in the incidence of PTS, and furthermore, on a determination of whether that reduction justifies the increased incidence of major bleeding (11% vs 3% with anticoagulation).62,63

Three studies demonstrated improved long-term venous function after CDT versus anticoagulation alone. Two showed a decrease in reflux or symptoms from 41-70% to 11-22%. In a retrospective case-control study, quality-of-life scores (including stigmata, health distress, physical function, and symptoms) were improved at 22-month follow-up after CDT with anticoagulation versus anticoagulation alone.64

The transcatheter approach facilitates the diagnosis of predisposing anatomic lesions or anomalies. In patients with iliofemoral DVT, CDT was successful for recanalization in 92-100% of patients, and it revealed an underlying lesion in 50-66%. Treatment of these stenoses with angioplasty and stent placement reestablished unobstructed flow and achieved a prompt clinical response. Studies with 2-year follow-up documented a 5-11% incidence of valvular incompetence.

Technique

Access to the popliteal vein is usually obtained with ultrasonographic guidance, though the common femoral, tibial, or internal jugular veins are also used. When thrombolysis is planned, use of ultrasonography and a micropuncture 21-gauge needle are recommended to minimize bleeding risk. Diagnostic venography is used to identify the extent of DVT, and fluoroscopic guidance is the most accurate and straightforward means of placing infusion catheters or devices. A sheath is placed, and a multiple–side-hole catheter or wire is used to deliver the drug and maximize exposure of the lytic to the surface area of the thrombus.

Plasminogen activators include streptokinase, u-PA, tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), tenecteplase (TNK), and recombinant tPA (r-tPA). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved only streptokinase for systemic thrombolytic therapy of DVT. However, this agent is not currently recommended because of high rates of allergic reaction and bleeding complications and because of the availability of lower-risk agents. uPA was used extensively in the 1980s and 1990s, but it was temporarily taken off the market, and tPA and r-tPA subsequently became the agents of choice. In a retrospective analysis of CDT for DVT, no significant differences were observed between uPA, tPA, and r-tPA with regard to success rate (>97%) or major complications (3-8%).

Recommended continuous dosages for CDT of unilateral leg DVT are tPA 0.5-1.0 mg/h, r-tPA 0.25-0.75 U/h, or TNK 0.25-0.5 mg/h. Other administration options include an initial lacing dose, which entails an initial bolus given throughout the target thrombus, and a front-loaded dose, which is a high concentration given for the first few hours. No advantage has been demonstrated for either approach.

Most practitioners use concomitant heparinization. Full heparinization was commonly used in conjunction with uPA, whereas the current trend has been to administer subtherapeutic heparin with tPA. LMWH has not been studied in this setting. In the coronary literature, enoxaparin improved outcomes (death and myocardial infarction reduced from 12 to 9.9%), but it significantly increased bleeding complications (from 1.4% to 2.1%).

During thrombolysis, patients remain on bed rest with frequent monitoring of vital signs, and puncture sites. Pericatheter oozing, enlarging hematoma, or evidence of GI-GU bleeding warrant immediate attention. Additional punctures, particularly arterial or intramuscular punctures, should be avoided. A separate IV access facilitates blood sampling to be performed at 6-hour intervals to monitor the patient's hematocrit, platelet count, activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT, if concomitant heparinization is used), and possibly fibrinogen values. Monitoring fibrinogen levels is controversial, though levels 4.4 µmol/L ( <150 mg/dL) might indicate a clinically significant systemic effect.

Contraindications are the same as those for thrombolysis in general. Absolute contraindications include active internal bleeding or DIC, a cerebrovascular event, trauma, or neurosurgery within 3 months. Relative contraindications include major surgery within 10 days, obstetric delivery, major trauma, organ biopsy, intracranial or spinal cord tumor, uncontrolled hypertension, major GI hemorrhage (within 3 mo), serious allergic reaction to a thrombolytic agent, known right-to-left cardiac or pulmonary shunt or left-heart thrombus, and an infected venous thrombus.

Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy devices

Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy devices are a popular adjunct to CDT. Although these devices may not completely remove thrombus, they are effective for debulking and for minimizing the dose and time required for infusing a thrombolytic. In patients at high risk for hemorrhagic complications of thrombolysis, mechanical thrombectomy may obviate infusion. Such devices are most commonly used to initially restore antegrade flow (in cases of limb threat) or to manage a resistant thrombus identified during thrombolysis.

The most basic mechanical method for thrombectomy is thromboaspiration, or the aspiration of thrombus through a sheath. Balloon maceration of the thrombus may be done to facilitate the procedure. The most technically advanced devices, approved primarily for interventions requiring hemodialysis access, may be divided by mechanism into categories of recirculation and fragmentation. Recirculation devices engage thrombus and destroy it by continuously mixing it by creating a hydrodynamic vortex.

Fragmentation devices leave macroscopic particulate effluent and include devices that chop, brush, or cut the clot. With these devices, concomitant lytic infusion and possible IVC filter placement are necessary to ensure PE prophylaxis. With recirculation devices, only the Trellis-8 Peripheral Infusion System (Bacchus Vascular, Inc., Santa Clara, CA) is FDA approved for the treatment of DVT. The AngioJet system (Possis Medical Inc., Minneapolis, MN), has the broadest FDA-approved uses, including uses in the coronary and peripheral arteries and in obtaining arteriovenous access; this is one of the most effective devices.

Reports have described use of the Arrow-Trerotola, AngioJet (Possis Medical), and Helix percutaneous thrombectomy devices for iliofemoral DVT, combined therapy (often with adjunctive thrombolysis, angioplasty and stenting, and placement of an IVC filter with the Arrow-Trerotola). These devices had 74-100% initial technical and 24-hour clinical success rates. Complete thrombus removal was variable (23-100%). The remainder improved with lytic infusion, with a mean infusion time of 6 hours. Only 1 study had a 6% incidence of major bleeding complications. The primary patency rate at 1 year was 85%, and clinical success was obtained in 92%. At 9- to 12-month follow-up, 2 studies demonstrated an 8% rate of venous insufficiency, whereas 2 others showed repeat DVT in 15-23%.

Although the literature lacks conclusive evidence, some data support the argument that DVT treated with anticoagulation results in a high risk of PTS 5-10 years later. Active removal of the thrombus with surgery or catheter-directed lysis clears the thrombus relatively quickly and improves preservation of valvular function while reducing the incidence and severity of PTS. However, systemic or catheter-directed pharmacologic lysis entails a high risk of bleeding complications. Initial data suggest that combination therapy that includes percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy to reduce the dose and duration of lysis may achieve a level of thrombus clearance that reduces the incidence of PTS without elevating the bleeding risk.

IVC filters

In most patients with DVT, prophylaxis against the potentially fatal passage of thrombus from the lower extremity or pelvic vein to the pulmonary circulation is adequately accomplished with anticoagulation. An IVC filter is a mechanical barrier to the flow of emboli larger than 4 mm. Indications for filter placement include DVT with a contraindication to anticoagulation, major bleeding due to anticoagulation therapy, or failed anticoagulation (manifest by progressive DVT or new PE during adequate anticoagulation).

In the past, IVC filters were placed in 4.4% of patients. Recent use was documented in 14% of patients with DVT; this rate was perhaps due to broadened indications with the introduction of removable filters. Temporary or removable filters, all of which may also be left as permanent, permit transient mechanical PE prophylaxis. This option may be useful in the setting of polytrauma, head injury, hemorrhagic stroke, known VTE, or major surgery when PE prophylaxis must be maintained during a short-term contraindication to anticoagulation.

In a randomized trial, the addition of an IVC filter to anticoagulation for DVT increased the risk of recurrent DVT (11.6% to 20.8%), and it did not improve the 2-year survival rate. However, the filter group had significantly fewer PEs (1.1% vs 4.8%). Of note was the risk of major bleeding at 3 months (10.5%). This result agrees with other reports and highlights the usual trade-off of prophylaxis with a filter versus anticoagulation and the respective complication risks of new DVT (peripheral to the filter) versus major hemorrhage. In the elderly patient with an increased risk of bleeding, and particularly if the patient is at risk for trauma, the risk and benefits may favor use of a filter.

CDT does not add to the risk of PE to warrant routine filter placement. However, for patients with contraindications to pharmacologic lysis in whom a PMT device is to be used, a filter may be a useful adjunct.60,61

Valve replacement

Percutaneously placed bioprosthetic venous valves are under development and may provide a minimally invasive therapy to the long-term complication of PTS due to valve destruction. If successful, this approach may provide a percutaneous therapeutic alternative for patients with primarily palliative options to manage their venous reflux symptoms. An effective therapy should diminish one of the primary indications for aggressive thrombolytic therapy for acute DVT.

Medicolegal Pitfalls

  • False-negative misdiagnosis with embolic sequelae (eg, PE) can result in litigation. For this reason, the threshold for workup and attention to any abnormality on an otherwise normal image should be low.
  • Use of thrombolytic medications to lyse DVT can cause intracranial bleeding, though this is infrequent, and death or impairment can result.
    • Careful assessment of the bleeding risk is needed before this therapy is attempted. Indications for lysis should be balanced against the possibility of bleeding before pharmacologic thrombolysis is attempted.
    • The need should be compelling when thrombolysis is considered in a setting of known contraindications. Factors such as recent surgery, stroke, GI or other bleeding, and underlying coagulopathy increase the bleeding risk when the thrombolytic medication is administered. The process of obtaining informed consent should include a discussion of these risks.
  • Mechanical thrombectomy or potentially any manipulation of catheters within thrombus can cause clot migration and/or PE.
    • If a nonrecirculating device is used, the threshold for temporary filter placement is low.
    • The operator should be capable of treating massive PE if mechanical DVT thrombectomy is being performed.

Special Concerns

  • The incidence of DVT is increased in women who are pregnant compared with the general population
  • Diagnostic confirmation is usually performed by using ultrasonography or MRI.
  • Limited radiographs with appropriate shielding can be obtained after the first trimester.
  • If major DVT occurs, usual treatment is anticoagulation therapy. Treatment more aggressive than this is usually considered only after the baby is delivered.
 


More on Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity

Overview: Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity
Imaging: Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity
Follow-up: Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity
Multimedia: Deep Venous Thrombosis, Lower Extremity
References
Further Reading
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

References

  1. Useche JN, de Castro AM, Galvis GE, Mantilla RA, Ariza A. Use of US in the evaluation of patients with symptoms of deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremities. Radiographics. Oct 2008;28(6):1785-97. [Medline].

  2. Chang R, Chen CC, Kam A, Mao E, Shawker TH, Horne MK 3rd. Deep vein thrombosis of lower extremity: direct intraclot injection of alteplase once daily with systemic anticoagulation--results of pilot study. Radiology. Feb 2008;246(2):619-29. [Medline].

  3. Biuckians A, Meier GH 3rd. Treatment of symptomatic lower extremity acute deep venous thrombosis: role of mechanical thrombectomy. Vascular. Sep-Oct 2007;15(5):297-303. [Medline].

  4. Li W, Salanitri J, Tutton S, Dunkle EE, Schneider JR, Caprini JA, et al. Lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: evaluation with ferumoxytol-enhanced MR imaging and dual-contrast mechanism--preliminary experience. Radiology. Mar 2007;242(3):873-81. [Medline].

  5. [Best Evidence] Kakkos SK, Caprini JA, Geroulakos G, Nicolaides AN, Stansby GP, Reddy DJ. Combined intermittent pneumatic leg compression and pharmacological prophylaxis for prevention of venous thromboembolism in high-risk patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Oct 8 2008;CD005258. [Medline].

  6. Virchow R, Chance R. Cellular Pathology. New York: Dewitt;1860.

  7. Henriksen O, Sejrsen P. Effect of "vein pump" activation upon venous pressure and blood flow in human subcutaneous tissue. Acta Physiol Scand. May 1977;100(1):14-21. [Medline].

  8. Wakefield TW, Strieter RM, Schaub R, et al. Venous thrombosis prophylaxis by inflammatory inhibition without anticoagulation therapy. J Vasc Surg. Feb 2000;31(2):309-24. [Medline].

  9. Wakefield TW, Proctor MC. Current status of pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis prophylaxis. Semin Vasc Surg. Sep 2000;13(3):171-81. [Medline].

  10. Kearon C. Initial treatment of venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. Aug 1999;82(2):887-91. [Medline].

  11. Kakkar VV, Howes J, Sharma V, et al. A comparative double-blind, randomised trial of a new second generation LMWH (bemiparin) and UFH in the prevention of post-operative venous thromboembolism. The Bemiparin Assessment group. Thromb Haemost. Apr 2000;83(4):523-9. [Medline].

  12. Heit JA, Mohr DN, Silverstein MD, et al. Predictors of recurrence after deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based cohort study. Arch Intern Med. Mar 27 2000;160(6):761-8. [Medline].

  13. Stein PD. Silent pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med. Jan 24 2000;160(2):145-6. [Medline].

  14. Meissner MH, Caps MT, Zierler BK, et al. Deep venous thrombosis and superficial venous reflux. J Vasc Surg. Jul 2000;32(1):48-56. [Medline].

  15. Meissner MH, Caps MT, Zierler BK, et al. Determinants of chronic venous disease after acute deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Nov 1998;28(5):826-33. [Medline].

  16. Meissner MH, Manzo RA, Bergelin RO, et al. Deep venous insufficiency: the relationship between lysis and subsequent reflux. J Vasc Surg. Oct 1993;18(4):596-605; discussion 606-8. [Medline].

  17. Caps MT, Manzo RA, Bergelin RO, et al. Venous valvular reflux in veins not involved at the time of acute deep vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Nov 1995;22(5):524-31. [Medline].

  18. Johnson BF, Manzo RA, Bergelin RO, Strandness DE Jr. Relationship between changes in the deep venous system and the development of the postthrombotic syndrome after an acute episode of lower limb deep vein thrombosis: a one- to six-year follow-up. J Vasc Surg. Feb 1995;21(2):307-12; discussion 313. [Medline].

  19. Johnson BF, Manzo RA, Bergelin RO, et al. The site of residual abnormalities in the leg veins in long-term follow- up after deep vein thrombosis and their relationship to the development of the post-thrombotic syndrome. Int Angiol. Mar 1996;15(1):14-9. [Medline].

  20. Haenen JH, Wollersheim H, Janssen MC, et al. Evolution of deep venous thrombosis: a 2-year follow-up using duplex ultrasound scan and strain-gauge plethysmography. J Vasc Surg. Oct 2001;34(4):649-55. [Medline].

  21. Andriopoulos A, Wirsing P, Botticher R. Results of iliofemoral venous thrombectomy after acute thrombosis: report on 165 cases. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). Mar-Apr 1982;23(2):123-4. [Medline].

  22. Zheng Y, Zhou B, Pu X. [Frequency of protein C polymorphisms in Chinese population and thrombotic patients]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. Mar 1998;78(3):210-2. [Medline].

  23. Juhan C, Alimi Y, Di Mauro P, et al. Surgical venous thrombectomy. Cardiovasc Surg. Oct 1999;7(6):586-90. [Medline].

  24. Saarinen J, Kallio T, Lehto M, et al. The occurrence of the post-thrombotic changes after an acute deep venous thrombosis. A prospective two-year follow-up study. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). Jun 2000;41(3):441-6. [Medline].

  25. Elliott G. Thrombolytic therapy for venous thromboembolism. Curr Opin Hematol. Sep 1999;6(5):304-8. [Medline].

  26. Baker WF Jr. Diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Med Clin North Am. May 1998;82(3):459-76. [Medline].

  27. Gorman WP, Davis KR, Donnelly R. ABC of arterial and venous disease. Swollen lower limb-1: general assessment and deep vein thrombosis. BMJ. May 27 2000;320(7247):1453-6. [Medline].

  28. Meignan M, Rosso J, Gauthier H, et al. Systematic lung scans reveal a high frequency of silent pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep venous thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. Jan 24 2000;160(2):159-64. [Medline].

  29. Zidane M, Schram MT, Planken EW, et al. Frequency of major hemorrhage in patients treated with unfractionated intravenous heparin for deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: a study in routine clinical practice. Arch Intern Med. Aug 14-28 2000;160(15):2369-73. [Medline].

  30. Kearon C, Crowther M, Hirsh J. Management of patients with hereditary hypercoagulable disorders. Annu Rev Med. 2000;51:169-85. [Medline].

  31. Prandoni P, Mannucci PM. Deep-vein thrombosis of the lower limbs: diagnosis and management. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. Sep 1999;12(3):533-54. [Medline].

  32. Rathbun SW, Raskob GE, Whitsett TL. Sensitivity and specificity of helical computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. Feb 1 2000;132(3):227-32. [Medline].

  33. Heit JA, Elliott CG, Trowbridge AA, et al. Ardeparin sodium for extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. Jun 6 2000;132(11):853-61. [Medline].

  34. Arfvidsson B, Eklof B, Kistner RL, et al. Risk factors for venous thromboembolism following prolonged air travel. Coach class thrombosis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. Apr 2000;14(2):391-400, ix. [Medline].

  35. Slipman CW, Lipetz JS, Jackson HB, et al. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism as a complication of bed rest for low back pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Jan 2000;81(1):127-9. [Medline].

  36. Ruggeri M, Tosetto A, Castaman G, Rodeghiero F. Congenital absence of the inferior vena cava: a rare risk factor for idiopathic deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. Feb 10 2001;357(9254):441. [Medline].

  37. Hamoud S, Nitecky S, Engel A, et al. Hypoplasia of the inferior vena cava with azygous continuation presenting as recurrent leg deep vein thrombosis. Am J Med Sci. Jun 2000;319(6):414-6. [Medline].

  38. Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC. The percutaneous greenfield filter: outcomes and practice patterns. J Vasc Surg. Nov 2000;32(5):888-93. [Medline].

  39. Tsuji Y, Goto A, Hara I, et al. Renal cell carcinoma with extension of tumor thrombus into the vena cava: surgical strategy and prognosis. J Vasc Surg. Apr 2001;33(4):789-96. [Medline].

  40. Motykie GD, Caprini JA, Arcelus JI, et al. Risk factor assessment in the management of patients with suspected deep venous thrombosis. Int Angiol. Mar 2000;19(1):47-51. [Medline].

  41. Motykie GD, Zebala LP, Caprini JA, et al. A guide to venous thromboembolism risk factor assessment. J Thromb Thrombolysis. Apr 2000;9(3):253-62. [Medline].

  42. Ho CH, Chau WK, Hsu HC, et al. Causes of venous thrombosis in fifty Chinese patients. Am J Hematol. Feb 2000;63(2):74-8. [Medline].

  43. Vandenbrouke JP, Bloemenkamp KW, Rosendaal FR, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Risk is particularly high with first use of oral contraceptives. BMJ. Jan 1 2000;320(7226):57-8. [Medline].

  44. Lensing AW. Anticoagulation in acute ischaemic stroke: deep vein thrombosis prevention and long-term stroke outcomes. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Aug 1999;10 Suppl 2:S123-7. [Medline].

  45. Lensing AW, Prins MH. Recurrent deep vein thrombosis and two coagulation factor gene mutations: quo vadis?. Thromb Haemost. Dec 1999;82(6):1564-6. [Medline].

  46. Burke DT. Prevention of deep venous thrombosis: overview of available therapy options for rehabilitation patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Sep-Oct 2000;79(5 Suppl):S3-8. [Medline].

  47. Merli GJ. Prophylaxis for deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in the surgical patient. Clin Cornerstone. 2000;2(4):15-28. [Medline].

  48. Cham MD, Yankelevitz DF, Shaham D, et al. Deep venous thrombosis: detection by using indirect CT venography. The Pulmonary Angiography-Indirect CT Venography Cooperative Group. Radiology. Sep 2000;216(3):744-51. [Medline].

  49. Loud PA, Katz DS, Bruce DA. Deep venous thrombosis with suspected pulmonary embolism: detection with combined CT venography and pulmonary angiography. Radiology. May 2001;219(2):498-502. [Medline].

  50. Loud PA, Katz DS, Klippenstein DL, et al. Combined CT venography and pulmonary angiography in suspected thromboembolic disease: diagnostic accuracy for deep venous evaluation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Jan 2000;174(1):61-5. [Medline].

  51. Coche EE, Hamoir XL, Hammer FD, et al. Using dual-detector helical CT angiography to detect deep venous thrombosis in patients with suspicion of pulmonary embolism: diagnostic value and additional findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Apr 2001;176(4):1035-9. [Medline].

  52. Michiels JJ, Oortwijn WJ, Naaborg R. Exclusion and diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis by a rapid ELISA D- dimer test, compression ultrasonography, and a simple clinical model. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Jul 1999;5(3):171-80. [Medline].

  53. Nawaz S, Chan P, Ireland S. Suspected deep vein thrombosis: a management algorithm for the accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med. Nov 1999;16(6):440-2. [Medline].

  54. Prandoni P, Bernardi E, Bagatella P, et al. The optimal treatment of venous thrombosis: current status and future perspectives. Clin Lab. 2001;47(3-4):151-4. [Medline].

  55. Knight LC, Baidoo KE, Romano JE, et al. Imaging pulmonary emboli and deep venous thrombi with 99mTc-bitistatin, a platelet-binding polypeptide from viper venom. J Nucl Med. Jun 2000;41(6):1056-64. [Medline].

  56. Taillefer R, Edell S, Innes G, et al. Acute thromboscintigraphy with (99m)Tc-apcitide: results of the phase 3 multicenter clinical trial comparing 99mTc-apcitide scintigraphy with contrast venography for imaging acute DVT. Multicenter Trial Investigators. J Nucl Med. Jul 2000;41(7):1214-23. [Medline].

  57. Ginsberg JS, Turkstra F, Buller HR, et al. Postthrombotic syndrome after hip or knee arthroplasty: a cross- sectional study. Arch Intern Med. Mar 13 2000;160(5):669-72. [Medline].

  58. Eklof B, Arfvidsson B, Kistner RL, et al. Indications for surgical treatment of iliofemoral vein thrombosis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. Apr 2000;14(2):471-82. [Medline].

  59. Grossman C, McPherson S. Safety and efficacy of catheter-directed thrombolysis for iliofemoral venous thrombosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Mar 1999;172(3):667-72. [Medline].

  60. Mewissen MW, Seabrook GR, Meissner MH. Catheter-directed thrombolysis for lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: report of a national multicenter registry. Radiology. 1999;211:39-49.

  61. Mewissen MW, Seabrook GR, Meissner MH, et al. Catheter-directed thrombolysis for lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: report of a national multicenter registry. Radiology. Apr 1999;211(1):39-49. [Medline].

  62. Breddin HK. Low molecular weight heparins in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in general surgery. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25 Suppl 3:83-9. [Medline].

  63. Schweizer J, Kirch W, Koch R, et al. Short- and long-term results after thrombolytic treatment of deep venous thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. Oct 2000;36(4):1336-43. [Medline].

  64. Comerota AJ, Throm RC, Mathias SD, et al. Catheter-directed thrombolysis for iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis improves health-related quality of life. J Vasc Surg. Jul 2000;32(1):130-7. [Medline].

  65. Abendschein DR, Baum PK, Martin DJ, et al. Effects of ZK-807834, a novel inhibitor of factor Xa, on arterial and venous thrombosis in rabbits. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. May 2000;35(5):796-805. [Medline].

  66. Adamczuk Y, Iglesias Varela ML, Forastiero R, et al. Factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A variant are risk factors for venous thromboembolism in the Argentinean population. Thromb Haemost. Mar 2000;83(3):509-10. [Medline].

  67. Ageno W. Treatment of venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res. Jan 1 2000;97(1):V63-72. [Medline].

  68. Agnelli G, Sonaglia F. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res. Jan 1 2000;97(1):V49-62. [Medline].

  69. Akar N, Akar E, Yilmaz E. Factor V (His 1299 Arg) in Turkish patients with venous thromboembolism. Am J Hematol. Feb 2000;63(2):102-3. [Medline].

  70. Aki Z, Kotiloglu G, Ozyilkan O. A patient with a prolonged prothrombin time due to an adverse interaction between 5-fluorouracil and warfarin. Am J Gastroenterol. Apr 2000;95(4):1093-4. [Medline].

  71. Andrew WK. An unusual cause of deep venous thrombosis of the lower limb. S Afr Med J. Jan 2000;90(1):42. [Medline].

  72. Ansari A. Rapid lysis of deep vein thrombosis by low molecular weight heparin. Tex Heart Inst J. 2000;27(1):74-5. [Medline].

  73. Arnaud E, Nicaud V, Poirier O, et al. Protective effect of a thrombin receptor (protease-activated receptor 1) gene polymorphism toward venous thromboembolism. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. Feb 2000;20(2):585-92. [Medline].

  74. Badgett DK, Comerota MC, Khan MN, et al. Duplex venous imaging: role for a comprehensive lower extremity examination. Ann Vasc Surg. Jan 2000;14(1):73-6. [Medline].

  75. Barrellier MT, Le Hello C, Verfaille M, et al. [Echo-doppler monitoring of asymptomatic distal deep vein thrombosis in patients given low-molecular-weight-heparin at prophylactic doses after orthopedic surgery]. J Mal Vasc. Jun 2000;25(3):195-200. [Medline].

  76. Bauer KA. Venous thromboembolism in malignancy. J Clin Oncol. Sep 2000;18(17):3065-7. [Medline].

  77. Beauchamp NJ, Makris M, Preston FE, et al. Major structural defects in the antithrombin gene in four families with type I antithrombin deficiency--partial/complete deletions and rearrangement of the antithrombin gene. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):715-21. [Medline].

  78. Benton L. DVT prevention. Low-molecular-weight heparin is a viable option. Am J Nurs. Feb 2000;100(2):84. [Medline].

  79. Bertina RM. Protein C deficiency and venous thrombosis--the search for the second genetic defect. Thromb Haemost. Mar 2000;83(3):360-1. [Medline].

  80. Bigaroni A, Perrier A, Bounameaux H. Is clinical probability assessment of deep vein thrombosis by a score really standardized?. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):788-9. [Medline].

  81. Bigaroni A, Perrier A, de Moerloose P, et al. Risk of major bleeding in unselected patients with venous thromboembolism. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Mar 2000;11(2):199-202. [Medline].

  82. Bjorgell O, Nilsson PE, Benoni G, et al. Symptomatic and asymptomatic deep vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. Differences in phlebographic pattern, described by a scoring of the thrombotic burden. Thromb Res. Sep 1 2000;99(5):429-38. [Medline].

  83. Bjorgell O, Nilsson PE, Jarenros H. Isolated nonfilling of contrast in deep leg vein segments seen on phlebography, and a comparison with color Doppler ultrasound, to assess the incidence of deep leg vein thrombosis. Angiology. Jun 2000;51(6):451-61. [Medline].

  84. Bjorgell O, Nilsson PE, Nilsson JA, et al. Location and extent of deep vein thrombosis in patients with and without FV:R 506Q mutation. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):648-51. [Medline].

  85. Blaivas M, Lambert MJ, Harwood RA, et al. Lower-extremity Doppler for deep venous thrombosis--can emergency physicians be accurate and fast?. Acad Emerg Med. Feb 2000;7(2):120-6. [Medline].

  86. Blann AD, Noteboom WM, Rosendaal FR. Increased soluble P-selectin levels following deep venous thrombosis: cause or effect?. Br J Haematol. Jan 2000;108(1):191-3. [Medline].

  87. Blattler W, Kreis N, Blattler IK. Practicability and quality of outpatient management of acute deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Nov 2000;32(5):855-60. [Medline].

  88. Bloemenkamp KW, Rosendaal FR, Helmerhorst FM, et al. Higher risk of venous thrombosis during early use of oral contraceptives in women with inherited clotting defects. Arch Intern Med. Jan 10 2000;160(1):49-52. [Medline].

  89. Blombery P, McGrath B. Chronic venous insufficiency in post-thrombotic patients. Clin Sci (Colch). Apr 2000;98(4):445-7. [Medline].

  90. Blum JE, Handmaker H. 1999 plenary session: Friday imaging symposium: role of small-peptide radiopharmaceuticals in the evaluation of deep venous thrombosis. Radiographics. Jul-Aug 2000;20(4):1187-93. [Medline].

  91. Bodner LJ, Nosher JL, Patel KM, et al. Peripheral venous access ports: outcomes analysis in 109 patients. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. May-Jun 2000;23(3):187-93. [Medline].

  92. Bonduel M, Hepner M, Sciuccati G, et al. Prothrombotic abnormalities in children with venous thromboembolism. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. Jan-Feb 2000;22(1):66-72. [Medline].

  93. Bookstein JJ, Bookstein FL. Augmented experimental pulse-spray thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator, enabling dose reduction by one or more orders of magnitude. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Mar 2000;11(3):299-303. [Medline].

  94. Botella FG, Labios Gomez M, Braso Aznar JV. [Deep venous thrombosis: present and future]. Med Clin (Barc). Apr 22 2000;114(15):584-96. [Medline].

  95. Bounameaux H. Factor V Leiden paradox: risk of deep-vein thrombosis but not of pulmonary embolism. Lancet. Jul 15 2000;356(9225):182-3. [Medline].

  96. Breen P. DVT. What every nurse should know. RN. Apr 2000;63(4):58-62; quiz 63. [Medline].

  97. Brenner B, Hoffman R, Blumenfeld Z, et al. Gestational outcome in thrombophilic women with recurrent pregnancy loss treated by enoxaparin. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):693-7. [Medline].

  98. Brill-Edwards P, Lee A. D-dimer testing in the diagnosis of acute venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. Aug 1999;82(2):688-94. [Medline].

  99. Burbridge BE, Wallace JK, Rajput A, et al. Doppler ultrasonographic examination of the leg veins of patients with Parkinson disease. J Psychiatry Neurosci. Sep 1999;24(4):338-40. [Medline].

  100. Burke B, Kumar R, Vickers V, et al. Deep vein thrombosis after lower limb amputation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Mar-Apr 2000;79(2):145-9. [Medline].

  101. Bussey HI. Venous thromboembolism in the elderly: introduction and overview. J Thromb Thrombolysis. Jan 2000;9(1):111-2. [Medline].

  102. Caliezi C, Reber G, Lammle B, et al. Agreement of D-dimer results measured by a rapid ELISA (VIDAS) before and after storage during 24h or transportation of the original whole blood samples. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):177-8. [Medline].

  103. Caps MT, Meissner MH, Tullis MJ, et al. Venous thrombus stability during acute phase of therapy. Vasc Med. 1999;4(1):9-14. [Medline].

  104. Carter AM, Catto AJ, Kohler HP, et al. alpha-fibrinogen Thr312Ala polymorphism and venous thromboembolism. Blood. Aug 1 2000;96(3):1177-9. [Medline].

  105. Casserly LF, Reddy SM, Dember LM. Venous thromboembolism in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. Aug 2000;36(2):405-11. [Medline].

  106. Castaman G, Tosetto A, Cappellari A, et al. The A20210 allele in the prothrombin gene enhances the risk of venous thrombosis in carriers of inherited protein S deficiency. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Jun 2000;11(4):321-6. [Medline].

  107. Chenu E, Guias B, Mottier D, et al. [What investigations should be done following the first episode of pulmonary embolism?]. Rev Mal Respir. Nov 1999;16(5 Pt 2):1007-17. [Medline].

  108. Chouhan VD, Comerota AJ, Sun L, et al. Inhibition of tissue factor pathway during intermittent pneumatic compression: A possible mechanism for antithrombotic effect. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. Nov 1999;19(11):2812-7. [Medline].

  109. Chunilal SD, Ginsberg JS. Strategies for the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res. Jan 1 2000;97(1):V33-48. [Medline].

  110. Church V. Staying on guard for DVT & PE. Nursing. Feb 2000;30(2):34-42; quiz 43-4. [Medline].

  111. Clement DL. Management of venous edema: insights from an international task force. Angiology. Jan 2000;51(1):13-7. [Medline].

  112. Cohen A, Quinlan D. PEP trial. Pulmonary Embolism Prevention. Lancet. Jul 15 2000;356(9225):247; discussion 250-1. [Medline].

  113. Cohen AT. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):171. [Medline].

  114. Cohen AT, Gallus AS, Haas S, et al. Workshop I: The potential role of new therapies in deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Aug 1999;10 Suppl 2:S99-102. [Medline].

  115. Colwell CW Jr, Collis DK, Paulson R, et al. Comparison of enoxaparin and warfarin for the prevention of venous thromboembolic disease after total hip arthroplasty. Evaluation during hospitalization and three months after discharge. J Bone Joint Surg Am. Jul 1999;81(7):932-40. [Medline].

  116. Conroy JM, Trivedi G, Sovd T, et al. The allele frequency of mutations in four genes that confer enhanced susceptibility to venous thromboembolism in an unselected group of New York State newborns. Thromb Res. Aug 15 2000;99(4):317-24. [Medline].

  117. Corral J, Gonzalez-Conejero R, Iniesta JA, et al. The FXIII Val34Leu polymorphism in venous and arterial thromboembolism. Haematologica. Mar 2000;85(3):293-7. [Medline].

  118. D''Souza R, Guillebaud J. Venous thromboembolism and oral contraceptives. Lancet. Oct 23 1999;354(9188):1469; discussion 1469-70. [Medline].

  119. Dahl OE, Frostick SP, Hull RD. Thromboembolism--an academic concern or a clinical reality?. Acta Orthop Scand. Aug 1999;70(4):404-6. [Medline].

  120. Dahl OE, Gudmundsen TE, Haukeland L. Late occurring clinical deep vein thrombosis in joint-operated patients. Acta Orthop Scand. Feb 2000;71(1):47-50. [Medline].

  121. Dahlback B. Blood coagulation. Lancet. May 6 2000;355(9215):1627-32. [Medline].

  122. Dai G, Gertler JP, Kamm RD. The effects of external compression on venous blood flow and tissue deformation in the lower leg. J Biomech Eng. Dec 1999;121(6):557-64. [Medline].

  123. Dalsing MC, Raju S, Wakefield TW, et al. A multicenter, phase I evaluation of cryopreserved venous valve allografts for the treatment of chronic deep venous insufficiency. J Vasc Surg. Nov 1999;30(5):854-64. [Medline].

  124. Daniel KR, Jackson RE, Kline JA. Utility of lower extremity venous ultrasound scanning in the diagnosis and exclusion of pulmonary embolism in outpatients. Ann Emerg Med. Jun 2000;35(6):547-54. [Medline].

  125. Davidson BL. Controversies in pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis. Am Fam Physician. Nov 1 1999;60(7):1969-80. [Medline].

  126. Davidson BL. Differentiation of low molecular weight heparins in treatment of acute deep vein thrombosis. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25 Suppl 3:107-12. [Medline].

  127. De Groot CJ, Bloemenkamp KW, Duvekot EJ, et al. Preeclampsia and genetic risk factors for thrombosis: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1999;181(4):975-80. [Medline].

  128. De Maeseneer MG, Tielliu IF, Tjalma WA, et al. Lack of compressibility of the common femoral vein: an unequivocal sign of proximal deep venous thrombosis on duplex ultrasound?. Cardiovasc Surg. Jun 2000;8(4):289-91. [Medline].

  129. De Mitrio V, Marino R, Scaraggi FA, et al. Influence of factor VIII/von Willebrand complex on the activated protein C-resistance phenotype and on the risk for venous thromboembolism in heterozygous carriers of the factor V Leiden mutation. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Oct 1999;10(7):409-16. [Medline].

  130. de Moerloose P. Diagnosis of venous thromboembolism by a rapid ELISA D-dimer test, clinical model and noninvasive imaging techniques. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Oct 1999;5(4):221-2. [Medline].

  131. De Stefano V, Martinelli I, Mannucci PM, et al. The risk of recurrent deep venous thrombosis among heterozygous carriers of both factor V Leiden and the G20210A prothrombin mutation. N Engl J Med. Sep 9 1999;341(11):801-6. [Medline].

  132. De Stefano V, Zappacosta B, Persichilli S, et al. Prevalence of mild hyperhomocysteinaemia and association with thrombophilic genotypes (factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A) in Italian patients with venous thromboembolic disease. Br J Haematol. Aug 1999;106(2):564-8. [Medline].

  133. Dempfle CE. The use of soluble fibrin in evaluating the acute and chronic hypercoagulable state. Thromb Haemost. Aug 1999;82(2):673-83. [Medline].

  134. Denninger MH, Chait Y, Casadevall N, et al. Cause of portal or hepatic venous thrombosis in adults: the role of multiple concurrent factors. Hepatology. Mar 2000;31(3):587-91. [Medline].

  135. Douketis JD, Foster GA, Crowther MA, et al. Clinical risk factors and timing of recurrent venous thromboembolism during the initial 3 months of anticoagulant therapy. Arch Intern Med. Dec 11-25 2000;160(22):3431-6. [Medline].

  136. Douketis JD, Gordon M, Johnston M, et al. The effects of hormone replacement therapy on thrombin generation, fibrinolysis inhibition, and resistance to activated protein C: prospective cohort study and review of literature. Thromb Res. Jul 1 2000;99(1):25-34. [Medline].

  137. Dulicek P, Maly J, Safarova M. Risk of thrombosis in patients homozygous and heterozygous for factor V Leiden in the East Bohemian region. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Apr 2000;6(2):87-9. [Medline].

  138. Dupuy DE. 1999 plenary session: Friday imaging symposium : venous US of lower- extremity deep venous thrombosis: when is US insufficient?. Radiographics. Jul-Aug 2000;20(4):1195-200. [Medline].

  139. Eekhoff EM, Rosendaal FR, Vandenbroucke JP, et al. Minor events and the risk of deep venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. Mar 2000;83(3):408-11. [Medline].

  140. Egermayer P. Clinical model for management of pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. Sep 21 1999;131(6):475. [Medline].

  141. Eggum R, Lie B, Stavis P. [Phlegmasia cerulea dolens as the initial symptom of abdominal aortic aneurysm]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. Dec 10 1999;119(30):4460-1. [Medline].

  142. Eichinger S, Weltermann A, Philipp K, et al. Prospective evaluation of hemostatic system activation and thrombin potential in healthy pregnant women with and without factor V Leiden. Thromb Haemost. Oct 1999;82(4):1232-6. [Medline].

  143. Eikelboom JW, Baker RI. Prothrombin 20210A and familial thrombophilia. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Dec 1999;10(8):523. [Medline].

  144. Eitzman DT, Westrick RJ, Nabel EG, et al. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and vitronectin promote vascular thrombosis in mice. Blood. Jan 15 2000;95(2):577-80. [Medline].

  145. Ellis MH, Manor Y, Witz M. Risk factors and management of patients with upper limb deep vein thrombosis. Chest. Jan 2000;117(1):43-6. [Medline].

  146. Ergul SM, Rocha Lima CS, Farber JM. Abdominal venous thrombosis with prothrombin gene mutation. Am J Hematol. Feb 2000;63(2):106-7. [Medline].

  147. Ertem D, Acar Y, Arat C, et al. Thrombotic and thrombocytopenic complications secondary to hepatitis A infection in children. Am J Gastroenterol. Dec 1999;94(12):3653-5. [Medline].

  148. Estrada CA, McElligott J, Dolezal JM, et al. Asymptomatic patients at high risk for deep venous thrombosis who receive inadequate prophylaxis should be screened. South Med J. Dec 1999;92(12):1145-50. [Medline].

  149. Ettingshausen CE, Saguer IM, Kreuz W. Portal vein thrombosis in a patient with severe haemophilia A and F V G1691A mutation during continuous infusion of F VIII after intramural jejunal bleeding--successful thrombolysis under heparin therapy. Eur J Pediatr. Dec 1999;158 Suppl 3:S180-2. [Medline].

  150. Evans GD, Langdown J, Brown K, et al. The C536T transition in the tissue factor pathway inhibitor gene is not a common cause of venous thromboembolic disease in the UK population. Thromb Haemost. Mar 2000;83(3):511. [Medline].

  151. Farmer RD, Lawrenson RA, Todd JC, et al. A comparison of the risks of venous thromboembolic disease in association with different combined oral contraceptives. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Jun 2000;49(6):580-90. [Medline].

  152. Farmer RD, Lawrenson RA, Todd JC, et al. Oral contraceptives and venous thromboembolic disease. Analyses of the UK General Practice Research Database and the UK Mediplus database. Hum Reprod Update. Nov-Dec 1999;5(6):688-706. [Medline].

  153. Few JW, Marcus JR, Placik OJ. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis in the moderate- to high-risk patient undergoing lower extremity liposuction. Plast Reconstr Surg. Jul 1999;104(1):309-10. [Medline].

  154. Fishman EK, Horton KM. CT of suspected pulmonary embolism: study design optimization. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Oct 2000;175(4):1002-3. [Medline].

  155. Flamholz R, Jeon HR, Baron JM, et al. Study of three patients with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura exchanged with solvent/detergent-treated plasma: is its decreased protein S activity clinically related to their development of deep venous thromboses?. J Clin Apheresis. 2000;15(3):169-72. [Medline].

  156. Forbes CD. A protocol for deep vein thrombosis. Practitioner. Apr 2000;244(1609):365-9. [Medline].

  157. Forman HP. When is an examination complete? Lessons to be learned from cost- effectiveness analysis. Acad Radiol. Feb 2000;7(2):65-6. [Medline].

  158. Fraisse F, Holzapfel L, Couland JM, et al. Nadroparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in acute decompensated COPD. The Association of Non-University Affiliated Intensive Care Specialist Physicians of France. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Apr 2000;161(4 Pt 1):1109-14. [Medline].

  159. Freedman KB, Brookenthal KR, Fitzgerald RH Jr, et al. A meta-analysis of thromboembolic prophylaxis following elective total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. Jul 2000;82-A(7):929-38. [Medline].

  160. Frenkel EP, Bick RL. Prothrombin G20210A gene mutation, heparin cofactor II defects, primary (essential) thrombocythemia, and thrombohemorrhagic manifestations. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25(4):375-86. [Medline].

  161. Freyburger G, Trillaud H, Labrouche S, et al. Rapid ELISA D-dimer testing in the exclusion of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Apr 2000;6(2):77-81. [Medline].

  162. Galli M, Finazzi G, Duca F, et al. The G1691 --> A mutation of factor V, but not the G20210 --> A mutation of factor II or the C677 --> T mutation of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase genes, is associated with venous thrombosis in patients with lupus anticoagulants. Br J Haematol. Mar 2000;108(4):865-70. [Medline].

  163. Garg K, Kemp JL, Wojcik D, et al. Thromboembolic disease: comparison of combined CT pulmonary angiography and venography with bilateral leg sonography in 70 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Oct 2000;175(4):997-1001. [Medline].

  164. Gattorno M, Molinari AC, Buoncompagni A, et al. Recurrent antiphospholipid-related deep vein thrombosis as presenting manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus. Eur J Pediatr. Mar 2000;159(3):211-4. [Medline].

  165. Gaustadnes M, Rudiger N, Moller J, et al. Thrombophilic predisposition in stroke and venous thromboembolism in Danish patients. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Jul 1999;10(5):251-9. [Medline].

  166. Gaustadnes M, Rudiger N, Rasmussen K, et al. Familial thrombophilia associated with homozygosity for the cystathionine beta-synthase 833T-->C mutation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. May 2000;20(5):1392-5. [Medline].

  167. Geroulakos G, Hossain J, Tran T. Economy-class syndrome presenting as phlegmasia caerulea dolens. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. Jul 2000;20(1):102-4. [Medline].

  168. Giordano P, De Lucia D, Coppola B, et al. Homozygous prothrombin gene mutation and ischemic cerebrovascular disease: a case report. Acta Haematol. 1999;102(2):101-3. [Medline].

  169. Girard P. [Inferior vena cava interruption. How and when?]. Rev Mal Respir. Nov 1999;16(5 Pt 2):975-84. [Medline].

  170. Girard P, Musset D, Parent F, et al. High prevalence of detectable deep venous thrombosis in patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. Oct 1999;116(4):903-8. [Medline].

  171. Girolami A, Prandoni P, Zanon E, et al. Venous thromboses of upper limbs are more frequently associated with occult cancer as compared with those of lower limbs. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Dec 1999;10(8):455-7. [Medline].

  172. Girolami A, Simioni P, Girolami B, et al. Low incidence of venous thrombosis in homozygous patients with NT 20210 G to a prothrombin polymorphism. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Oct 1999;5(4):205-7. [Medline].

  173. Girolami A, Simioni P, Scarano L, et al. Symptomatic combined homozygous factor XII deficiency and heterozygous factor V Leiden. luscaber@tin.it. J Thromb Thrombolysis. Apr 2000;9(3):271-5. [Medline].

  174. Girolami A, Simioni P, Tormene D. APC resistance, oral contraceptive therapy and deep vein thrombosis: settled and unsettled problems. Haematologica. Mar 2000;85(3):225-6. [Medline].

  175. Girolami A, Simioni P, Tormene D, et al. Two additional homozygous patients for the 20210 prothrombin polymorphism with no venous thrombosis. Thromb Res. Dec 1 1999;96(5):415-7. [Medline].

  176. Goldberg A. Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after total knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br. Mar 2000;82(2):304-5. [Medline].

  177. Goldhaber SZ. Diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. Clin Cornerstone. 2000;2(4):29-37. [Medline].

  178. Goldhaber SZ. Management of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Clin Cornerstone. 2000;2(4):47-58; quiz 59-64. [Medline].

  179. Goldhaber SZ. The perils of D-dimer in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. Feb 2000;28(2):583-4. [Medline].

  180. Goldhaber SZ. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in medical patients. Thromb Haemost. Aug 1999;82(2):899-901. [Medline].

  181. Gonzalez Ordonez AJ, Fernandez Carreira JM, Alvarez MV, et al. A high factor II/Factor X functional ratio is not a useful predictor of the FII G20210A gene mutation in thromboembolic patients undergoing oral anticoagulant treatment. Clin Chem. Jun 2000;46(6 Pt 1):886-7. [Medline].

  182. Gonzalez-Conejero R, Lozano ML, Corral J, et al. The TFPI 536C-->T mutation is not associated with increased risk for venous or arterial thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):787-8. [Medline].

  183. Gonzalez-Fajardo JA, Arreba E, Castrodeza J, et al. Venographic comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular weight heparin with oral anticoagulant therapy in the long-term treatment of deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Aug 1999;30(2):283-92. [Medline].

  184. Gonze MD, Salartash K, Sternbergh WC 3rd, et al. Orally administered unfractionated heparin with carrier agent is therapeutic for deep venous thrombosis. Circulation. Jun 6 2000;101(22):2658-61. [Medline].

  185. Goodman LR. 1999 plenary session: Friday imaging symposium : CT diagnosis of pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis. Radiographics. Jul-Aug 2000;20(4):1201-5. [Medline].

  186. Gotthardt M, Brandt D, Kuni H, et al. Venous bypass after deep venous thrombosis visible on an early-phase bone scan. Clin Nucl Med. Apr 2000;25(4):291-2. [Medline].

  187. Grady D, Wenger NK, Herrington D, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy increases risk for venous thromboembolic disease. The Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. Ann Intern Med. May 2 2000;132(9):689-96. [Medline].

  188. Grandas OH, Klar M, Goldman MH, et al. Deep venous thrombosis in the pediatric trauma population: an unusual event: report of three cases. Am Surg. Mar 2000;66(3):273-6. [Medline].

  189. Grau E, Real E, Medrano J, et al. Recurrent venous thromboembolism in a Spanish population: incidence, risk factors, and management in a hospital setting. Thromb Res. Dec 1 1999;96(5):335-41. [Medline].

  190. Greaves M, Cohen H, MacHin SJ, et al. Guidelines on the investigation and management of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Br J Haematol. Jun 2000;109(4):704-15. [Medline].

  191. Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Michaels AJ, et al. Prophylactic vena caval filters in trauma: the rest of the story. J Vasc Surg. Sep 2000;32(3):490-5; discussion 496-7. [Medline].

  192. Grigg AP. Deep venous thrombosis as the presenting feature in a patient with coeliac disease and homocysteinaemia. Aust N Z J Med. Aug 1999;29(4):566-7. [Medline].

  193. Guirguis N, Budisavljevic MN, Self S, et al. Acute renal artery and vein thrombosis after renal transplant, associated with a short partial thromboplastin time and factor V Leiden mutation. Ann Clin Lab Sci. Jan 2000;30(1):75-8. [Medline].

  194. Guis-Sabatier S, Roudier J, Arnoux D, et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome and factor V Leiden. Three cases with recurrent venous thrombosis. Joint Bone Spine. 2000;67(2):134-6. [Medline].

  195. Haas S. Low molecular weight heparins in the prevention of venous thromboembolism in nonsurgical patients. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25 Suppl 3:101-5. [Medline].

  196. Haas S, Agnelli G, Arcelus JI, et al. Workshop II: The future of prolonged thromboprophylaxis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Aug 1999;10 Suppl 2:S103-6. [Medline].

  197. Hagg S, Spigset O, Soderstrom TG. Association of venous thromboembolism and clozapine. Lancet. Apr 1 2000;355(9210):1155-6. [Medline].

  198. Halbmayer WM, Kalhs T, Haushofer A, et al. Venous thromboembolism at a young age in a brother and sister with coinheritance of homozygous 20210A/A prothrombin mutation and heterozygous 1691G/A factor V Leiden mutation. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Jul 1999;10(5):297-302. [Medline].

  199. Hamulyak K, van der Graaf F, Janssen MC, et al. Exclusion of deep vein thrombosis with rapid ELISA D-dimer testing: from theory to daily practice. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Oct 1999;5(4):216-9. [Medline].

  200. Handoll HH, Farrar MJ, McBirnie J, et al. Heparin, low molecular weight heparin and physical methods for preventing deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism following surgery for hip fractures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD000305. [Medline].

  201. Hansson PO, Sorbo J, Eriksson H. Recurrent venous thromboembolism after deep vein thrombosis: incidence and risk factors. Arch Intern Med. Mar 27 2000;160(6):769-74. [Medline].

  202. Harris M, Grange J. Management of calf deep venous thrombosis. Ann Emerg Med. Jun 2000;35(6):629. [Medline].

  203. Hashimoto K, Shizusawa Y, Shimoya K, et al. The factor V Leiden mutation in Japanese couples with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Hum Reprod. Jul 1999;14(7):1872-4. [Medline].

  204. Heinze KG. Molecular risk factors for thrombosis and risk factors in venous thrombotic disease. Clin Lab. 2000;46(3-4):191-4. [Medline].

  205. Heller C, Becker S, Scharrer I, et al. Prothrombotic risk factors in childhood stroke and venous thrombosis. Eur J Pediatr. Dec 1999;158 Suppl 3:S117-21. [Medline].

  206. Hepner M, Roldan A, Pieroni G, et al. Factor V Leiden mutation in the Argentinian population. Thromb Haemost. Jun 1999;81(6):989. [Medline].

  207. Heron E, Lozinguez O, Alhenc-Gelas M, et al. Hypercoagulable states in primary upper-extremity deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. Feb 14 2000;160(3):382-6. [Medline].

  208. Heron E, Lozinguez O, Emmerich J, et al. Long-term sequelae of spontaneous axillary-subclavian venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. Oct 5 1999;131(7):510-3. [Medline].

  209. Hirsh J, Bates SM. Clinical trials that have influenced the treatment of venous thromboembolism: a historical perspective. Ann Intern Med. Mar 6 2001;134(5):409-17. [Medline].

  210. Hoibraaten E, Abdelnoor M, Sandset PM. Hormone replacement therapy with estradiol and risk of venous thromboembolism--a population-based case-control study. Thromb Haemost. Oct 1999;82(4):1218-21. [Medline].

  211. Holmstrom M, Aberg W, Lockner D, et al. Long-term clinical follow-up in 265 patients with deep venous thrombosis initially treated with either unfractionated heparin or dalteparin: a retrospective analysis. Thromb Haemost. Oct 1999;82(4):1222-6. [Medline].

  212. Horne MK 3rd, Chang R. Thrombolytic therapy for deep venous thrombosis?. JAMA. Dec 8 1999;282(22):2164-6. [Medline].

  213. Horton MG, Mewissen MW, Rilling WS, et al. Hemodialysis catheter placement directly into occluded central vein segments: a technical note. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Sep 1999;10(8):1059-62. [Medline].

  214. Houry D, Southall J, Manning M, et al. Use of the Amplatz thrombectomy device for severe deep venous thrombosis. South Med J. Sep 1999;92(9):915-7. [Medline].

  215. Hovanessian HC. New-generation anticoagulants: the low molecular weight heparins. Ann Emerg Med. Dec 1999;34(6):768-79. [Medline].

  216. Huang A, Barber N, Northeast A. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis protocol--needs active enforcement. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. Jan 2000;82(1):69-70. [Medline].

  217. Hull RD, Pineo GF. Extended prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism following total hip and knee replacement. Haemostasis. Dec 1999;29 Suppl S1:23-31. [Medline].

  218. Hull RD, Pineo GF. Long term outpatient prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25 Suppl 3:91-5. [Medline].

  219. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Francis C, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin extended out- of-hospital vs in-hospital warfarin/out-of-hospital placebo in hip arthroplasty patients: a double-blind, randomized comparison. North American Fragmin Trial Investigators. Arch Intern Med. Jul 24 2000;160(14):2208-15. [Medline].

  220. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Francis C, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin in close proximity to surgery vs warfarin in hip arthroplasty patients: a double- blind, randomized comparison. The North American Fragmin Trial Investigators. Arch Intern Med. Jul 24 2000;160(14):2199-207. [Medline].

  221. Hutten BA, Prins MH, Gent M, et al. Incidence of recurrent thromboembolic and bleeding complications among patients with venous thromboembolism in relation to both malignancy and achieved international normalized ratio: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol. Sep 2000;18(17):3078-83. [Medline].

  222. Ihle J, Kummerle-Deschner J, Orlikowsky T, et al. Factor V Leiden and venous thrombosis in a 4-yr-old girl with Behcet''s syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford). Feb 2000;39(2):209-10. [Medline].

  223. Imanaka S, Aihara S, Yoshihara K, et al. Use of a temporary caval filter in a young man with pulmonary embolism to prevent migration of massive caval thrombus during an attempt of caval thrombolysis. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2000;6(1):18-21. [Medline].

  224. Isotalo PA, Donnelly JG. Prevalence of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase mutations in patients with venous thrombosis. Mol Diagn. Mar 2000;5(1):59-66. [Medline].

  225. Jay SJ. Risk factors for thromboembolism. Ann Intern Med. Nov 16 1999;131(10):790; discussion 790-1. [Medline].

  226. Jick H. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Methods for identifying cases and estimating person time at risk must be detailed. BMJ. Jan 1 2000;320(7226):57; discussion 57-8. [Medline].

  227. Joynt GM, Kew J, Gomersall CD, et al. Deep venous thrombosis caused by femoral venous catheters in critically ill adult patients. Chest. Jan 2000;117(1):178-83. [Medline].

  228. Kamphuisen PW, Rosendaal FR, Eikenboom JC, et al. Factor V antigen levels and venous thrombosis: risk profile, interaction with factor V leiden, and relation with factor VIII antigen levels. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. May 2000;20(5):1382-6. [Medline].

  229. Kaper RF, Norpoth T, Rekers H. Third- and second-generation oral contraceptives are associated with similar risk estimates for venous thromboembolism. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. Mar 2000;5(1):1-15. [Medline].

  230. Keeling DM, Wright M, Baker P, et al. D-dimer for the exclusion of venous thromboembolism: comparison of a new automated latex particle immunoassay (MDA D-dimer) with an established enzyme-linked fluorescent assay (VIDAS D-dimer). Clin Lab Haematol. Oct 1999;21(5):359-62. [Medline].

  231. Kelsey LJ, Fry DM, VanderKolk WE. Thrombosis risk in the trauma patient. Prevention and treatment. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. Apr 2000;14(2):417-30. [Medline].

  232. Kennedy JG, Soffe KE, Rogers BW, et al. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis in hip fractures: a comparison of the arteriovenous impulse system and aspirin. J Trauma. Feb 2000;48(2):268-72. [Medline].

  233. Kesteven PL. Traveller''s thrombosis. Thorax. Aug 2000;55 Suppl 1:S32-6. [Medline].

  234. Khoury A, Mosheiff R, Liebergall M. [Thromboembolism in orthopedic trauma]. Harefuah. Dec 1 1999;137(11):515-20, 592. [Medline].

  235. Kim HM, Kuntz KM, Cronan JJ. Optimal management strategy for use of compression US for deep venous thrombosis in symptomatic patients: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Acad Radiol. Feb 2000;7(2):67-76. [Medline].

  236. Kim V, Spandorfer J. Epidemiology of venous thromboembolic disease. Emerg Med Clin North Am. Nov 2001;19(4):839-59. [Medline].

  237. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Poggi J. Risk of pulmonary embolism and/or deep venous thrombosis in Asian- Americans. Am J Cardiol. Jun 1 2000;85(11):1334-7. [Medline].

  238. Knofler R, Siegert E, Lauterbach I, et al. Clinical importance of prothrombotic risk factors in pediatric patients with malignancy--impact of central venous lines. Eur J Pediatr. Dec 1999;158 Suppl 3:S147-50. [Medline].

  239. Koch HG, Nabel P, Junker R, et al. The 677T genotype of the common MTHFR thermolabile variant and fasting homocysteine in childhood venous thrombosis. Eur J Pediatr. Dec 1999;158 Suppl 3:S113-6. [Medline].

  240. Kollef MH, Zahid M, Eisenberg PR. Predictive value of a rapid semiquantitative D-dimer assay in critically ill patients with suspected venous thromboembolic disease. Crit Care Med. Feb 2000;28(2):414-20. [Medline].

  241. Kontopoulou I. Oral contraceptives'' effects on the vascular component. Thrombophilic parameters. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;900:228-36. [Medline].

  242. Koren A, Zalman L, Levin C, et al. Venous thromboembolism, factor V Leiden, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase in a sickle cell anemia patient. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. Sep-Oct 1999;16(5):469-72. [Medline].

  243. Koster T, Rosendaal FR, Lieuw-A-Len DD, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae IgG seropositivity and risk of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. May 13 2000;355(9216):1694-5. [Medline].

  244. Kovacevich GJ, Gaich SA, Lavin JP, et al. The prevalence of thromboembolic events among women with extended bed rest prescribed as part of the treatment for premature labor or preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. May 2000;182(5):1089-92. [Medline].

  245. Kovacs MJ, Anderson D, Morrow B, et al. Outpatient treatment of pulmonary embolism with dalteparin. Thromb Haemost. Feb 2000;83(2):209-11. [Medline].

  246. Kraaijenhagen RA, in''t Anker PS, Koopman MM. High plasma concentration of factor VIIIc is a major risk factor for venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):5-9. [Medline].

  247. Kraimps JL, Dib H, Raynier P, et al. Left-sided inferior vena cava and thrombosis. Eur J Surg. Aug 1993;159(8):441-3. [Medline].

  248. Kucherov AL. [Organization of antituberculosis care under the new economic conditions]. Probl Tuberk. 1991;(6):5-8. [Medline].

  249. Kuismanen K, Savontaus ML, Kozlov A, et al. Coagulation factor V Leiden mutation in sudden fatal pulmonary embolism and in a general northern European population sample. Forensic Sci Int. Dec 6 1999;106(2):71-5. [Medline].

  250. Kurz X, Kahn SR, Abenhaim L, et al. Chronic venous disorders of the leg: epidemiology, outcomes, diagnosis and management. Summary of an evidence-based report of the VEINES task force. Venous Insufficiency Epidemiologic and Economic Studies. Int Angiol. Jun 1999;18(2):83-102. [Medline].

  251. LaCapra S, Arkel YS, Ku DH, et al. The use of thrombus precursor protein, D-dimer, prothrombin fragment 1.2, and thrombin antithrombin in the exclusion of proximal deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Jun 2000;11(4):371-7. [Medline].

  252. Lane DA, Grant PJ. Role of hemostatic gene polymorphisms in venous and arterial thrombotic disease. Blood. Mar 1 2000;95(5):1517-32. [Medline].

  253. Langan EM 3rd, Miller RS, Casey WJ 3rd, et al. Prophylactic inferior vena cava filters in trauma patients at high risk: follow-up examination and risk/benefit assessment. J Vasc Surg. Sep 1999;30(3):484-88. [Medline].

  254. Larsen TB, Norgaard-Pedersen B, Lundemose JB, et al. Sudden infant death syndrome, childhood thrombosis, and presence of genetic risk factors for thrombosis. Thromb Res. May 15 2000;98(4):233-9. [Medline].

  255. Lassen MR, Borris LC, Jensen HP. Dose relation in the prevention of proximal vein thrombosis with a low molecular weight heparin (tinzaparin) in elective hip arthroplasty. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Jan 2000;6(1):53-7. [Medline].

  256. Lau LL, McMurray AH. Mesenteric venous thrombosis in protein S deficiency: case report and literature review. Ulster Med J. May 1999;68(1):33-5. [Medline].

  257. Le Blanche AF, Siguret V, Settegrana C, et al. Ruling out acute deep vein thrombosis by ELISA plasma D-dimer assay versus ultrasound in inpatients more than 70 years old. Angiology. Nov 1999;50(11):873-82. [Medline].

  258. Lee AY, Julian JA, Levine MN, et al. Clinical utility of a rapid whole-blood D-dimer assay in patients with cancer who present with suspected acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. Sep 21 1999;131(6):417-23. [Medline].

  259. Lee WA, Hill BB, Harris EJ Jr, et al. Surgical intervention is not required for all patients with subclavian vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Jul 2000;32(1):57-67. [Medline].

  260. Levitan N, Dowlati A, Remick SC, et al. Rates of initial and recurrent thromboembolic disease among patients with malignancy versus those without malignancy. Risk analysis using Medicare claims data. Medicine (Baltimore). Sep 1999;78(5):285-91. [Medline].

  261. Lewis MA, MacRae KD, Kuhl-Habich D, et al. Venous thromboembolism and oral contraceptives. Lancet. Oct 23 1999;354(9188):1470. [Medline].

  262. Lindahl TL, Lundahl TH, Fransson SG, et al. Evaluation of an automated micro-latex D-dimer assay (Tina-quant on Hitachi 911 analyser) in symptomatic outpatients with suspected DVT. Thromb Haemost. Dec 1999;82(6):1772-3. [Medline].

  263. Lindmarker P. Can all patients with deep vein thrombosis receive low-molecular-weight heparin in an outpatient setting?. Haemostasis. Dec 1999;29 Suppl S1:84-8. [Medline].

  264. Lindmarker P, Schulman S. The risk of ipsilateral versus contralateral recurrent deep vein thrombosis in the leg. The DURAC Trial Study Group. J Intern Med. May 2000;247(5):601-6. [Medline].

  265. Lippi G, Brocco G, Manzato F, et al. Relationship between venous thromboembolism and lipid or lipoprotein disorders. Thromb Res. Sep 15 1999;95(6):353-4. [Medline].

  266. Lloyd G. Protocols for deep vein thrombosis. J Accid Emerg Med. Jul 1999;16(4):313-4. [Medline].

  267. London NJ, Nash R. ABC of arterial and venous disease. Varicose veins. BMJ. May 20 2000;320(7246):1391-4. [Medline].

  268. Lopez FF, Sweeney JD, Blair AJ, et al. Spontaneous venous thrombosis in a young patient with combined factor V Leiden and lupus anticoagulant. Am J Hematol. Sep 1999;62(1):58-60. [Medline].

  269. Loret de Mola JR, Kiwi R, Austin C, et al. Subclavian deep vein thrombosis associated with the use of recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone (Gonal-F) complicating mild ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Fertil Steril. Jun 2000;73(6):1253-6. [Medline].

  270. Lowe G, Woodward M, Vessey M, et al. Thrombotic variables and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in women aged 45-64 years. Relationships to hormone replacement therapy. Thromb Haemost. Apr 2000;83(4):530-5. [Medline].

  271. Lozano EA, Saba ZS, Culbertson C. Transcatheter management of innominate vein thrombosis prior to bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. Jan 2000;49(1):61-3. [Medline].

  272. Luddington R, Jackson A, Pannerselvam S, et al. The factor V R2 allele: risk of venous thromboembolism, factor V levels and resistance to activated protein C. Thromb Haemost. Feb 2000;83(2):204-8. [Medline].

  273. Ludwig M, Felberbaum RE, Diedrich K. Deep vein thrombosis during administration of HMG for ovarian stimulation. Arch Gynecol Obstet. Feb 2000;263(3):139-41. [Medline].

  274. Lynch TG, Dalsing MC, Ouriel K, et al. Developments in diagnosis and classification of venous disorders: non- invasive diagnosis. Cardiovasc Surg. Mar 1999;7(2):160-78. [Medline].

  275. Mackenzie AR, Laing RB, Douglas JG, et al. High prevalence of iliofemoral venous thrombosis with severe groin infection among injecting drug users in North East Scotland: successful use of low molecular weight heparin with antibiotics. Postgrad Med J. Sep 2000;76(899):561-5. [Medline].

  276. MacLean RM, Feeney GP, Bowley SJ, et al. Factor V Leiden and the common haemochromatosis mutation HFE C282Y: is there an association in familial venous thromboembolic disease?. Br J Haematol. Oct 1999;107(1):210-2. [Medline].

  277. Madden S, Porter TF. Deep venous thrombosis: prophylaxis in gynecology. Clin Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1999;42(4):895-901. [Medline].

  278. Magee LA, Redman CW. A case report of acute pelvic thrombophlebitis missed by magnetic resonance imaging of the pelvic veins. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. Feb 2000;88(2):203-5. [Medline].

  279. Mahe I, Bergmann JF, Mahe E, et al. PEP trial. Pulmonary Embolism Prevention. Lancet. Jul 15 2000;356(9225):248; discussion 250-1. [Medline].

  280. Makris M, Leach M, Beauchamp NJ, et al. Genetic analysis, phenotypic diagnosis, and risk of venous thrombosis in families with inherited deficiencies of protein S. Blood. Mar 15 2000;95(6):1935-41. [Medline].

  281. Manco-Johnson MJ, Nuss R, Hays T, et al. Combined thrombolytic and anticoagulant therapy for venous thrombosis in children. J Pediatr. Apr 2000;136(4):446-53. [Medline].

  282. Mant MJ, Russell DB, Johnston DW, et al. Intraoperative heparin in addition to postoperative low-molecular- weight heparin for thromboprophylaxis in total knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br. Jan 2000;82(1):48-9. [Medline].

  283. Margaglione M, D''Andrea G, Colaizzo D, et al. Coexistence of factor V Leiden and Factor II A20210 mutations and recurrent venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. Dec 1999;82(6):1583-7. [Medline].

  284. Marie I, Levesque H, Cailleux N, et al. [An uncommon cause of venous thrombosis]. Rev Med Interne. Jun 2000;21(6):557-8. [Medline].

  285. Marinella MA, Kathula SK, Markert RJ. Spectrum of upper-extremity deep venous thrombosis in a community teaching hospital. Heart Lung. Mar-Apr 2000;29(2):113-7. [Medline].

  286. Marras LC, Geerts WH, Perry JR. The risk of venous thromboembolism is increased throughout the course of malignant glioma: an evidence-based review. Cancer. Aug 1 2000;89(3):640-6. [Medline].

  287. Martinelli I, Cattaneo M, Taioli E, et al. Genetic risk factors for superficial vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. Oct 1999;82(4):1215-7. [Medline].

  288. Marz W, Nauck M, Wieland H. The molecular mechanisms of inherited thrombophilia. Z Kardiol. Jul 2000;89(7):575-86. [Medline].

  289. McColl MD, Ellison J, Greer IA, et al. Prevalence of the post-thrombotic syndrome in young women with previous venous thromboembolism. Br J Haematol. Feb 2000;108(2):272-4. [Medline].

  290. Meijers JC, Tekelenburg WL, Bouma BN, et al. High levels of coagulation factor XI as a risk factor for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. Mar 9 2000;342(10):696-701. [Medline].

  291. Meissner MH. Deep venous thrombosis in the trauma patient. Semin Vasc Surg. Dec 1998;11(4):274-82. [Medline].

  292. Meissner MH, Caps MT, Bergelin RO, et al. Propagation, rethrombosis and new thrombus formation after acute deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. Nov 1995;22(5):558-67. [Medline].

  293. Mercuri F, Giacomello R, Puglisi F, et al. Factor V leiden increases plasma F1+2 levels both in normal and deep venous thrombosis subjects. Haematologica. Apr 2000;85(4):386-9. [Medline].

  294. Merli GJ. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism prophylaxis in joint replacement surgery. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. Aug 1999;25(3):639-56, ix. [Medline].

  295. Merli GJ. Low molecular weight heparin in the treatment of acute deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A paradigm change in care. J Thromb Thrombolysis. Jun 2000;9 Suppl 1:S21-7. [Medline].

  296. Merli GJ. Low-molecular-weight heparins versus unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. Sep-Oct 2000;79(5 Suppl):S9-16. [Medline].

  297. Merli GJ. Treatment of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism with low molecular weight heparin in the geriatric patient population. Clin Geriatr Med. Feb 2001;17(1):93-106. [Medline].

  298. Miller JL. Study documents cost reduction with outpatient enoxaparin therapy. Am J Health Syst Pharm. Dec 15 1999;56(24):2508. [Medline].

  299. Miranda AR, Hassouna HI. Mechanisms of thrombosis in spinal cord injury. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. Apr 2000;14(2):401-16. [Medline].

  300. Miron MJ, Perrier A, Bounameaux H. Clinical assessment of suspected deep vein thrombosis: comparison between a score and empirical assessment. J Intern Med. Feb 2000;247(2):249-54. [Medline].

  301. Misgav M, Berliner S. [Upper extremity deep vein thrombosis]. Harefuah. Feb 1 1999;136(3):224-9. [Medline].

  302. Misgav M, Eldor A, Berliner S. [A new mutation in the prothrombin gene (G20210A) and the risk for venous and arterial thromboembolism]. Harefuah. Jul 2000;139(1-2):51-6. [Medline].

  303. Mismetti P, Laporte-Simitsidis S, Tardy B, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in internal medicine with unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparins: a meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):14-9. [Medline].

  304. Mitsis M, Ioannou H, Eleftheriou A, et al. Combined genetic defect (homogeneity for factor V Leiden and heterogeneity for prothrombin G20210A allele), in a young patient, with recurrent deep vein thrombosis and serious postphlebitic syndrome--a case report. Angiology. Apr 2000;51(4):325-9. [Medline].

  305. Moldanado SA. Secondary analysis: expanding survey research by faculty members. Nurse Educ. Jul-Aug 1991;16(4):4-5, 15. [Medline].

  306. Morange PE, Henry M, Tregouet D, et al. The A -844G polymorphism in the PAI-1 gene is associated with a higher risk of venous thrombosis in factor V Leiden carriers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. May 2000;20(5):1387-91. [Medline].

  307. Morey SS. American Thoracic Society develops guidelines on diagnosis of venous thromboembolism. Am Fam Physician. Feb 15 2000;61(4):1194, 1196, 1198-99. [Medline].

  308. Mori PG, Acquila M, Bicocchi MP, et al. More on the relationship between cystic fibrosis and venous thrombosis. Eur J Haematol. Jul 2000;65(1):82-3. [Medline].

  309. Morimoto Y, Sugimoto T, Okada M, et al. Clinical assessment of vascular thrombosis using indium-111 platelet scintigraphy. Angiology. Jan 2000;51(1):61-8. [Medline].

  310. Muir KW, Watt A, Baxter G, et al. Randomized trial of graded compression stockings for prevention of deep- vein thrombosis after acute stroke. QJM. Jun 2000;93(6):359-64. [Medline].

  311. Munchow N, Kosch A, Schobess R. et al. Role of genetic prothrombotic risk factors in childhood caval vein thrombosis. Eur J Pediatr. Dec 1999;158 Suppl 3:S109-12. [Medline].

  312. Murphy TP. Sharp recanalization of central venous occlusions. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Sep 1999;10(8):1131. [Medline].

  313. Musil D. [Regression of deep venous thrombosis]. Vnitr Lek. Jan 2000;46(1):16-8. [Medline].

  314. Muto P, Lastoria S. Use of radiolabeled peptides to image deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. J Nucl Med. Jun 2000;41(6):1065-6. [Medline].

  315. Newton LJ, Krishnan A, Parapia LA. Born to clot: the European burden. Br J Haematol. Oct 1999;107(1):213. [Medline].

  316. Nguyen A. Review and management of patients with the prothrombin G20210A polymorphism. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Apr 2000;6(2):94-9. [Medline].

  317. Nishikawa H, Ideishi M, Nishimura T, et al. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary thromboembolism associated with a huge uterine myoma--a case report. Angiology. Feb 2000;51(2):161-6. [Medline].

  318. Noel AA, Gloviczki P, Charboneau JW. Free-floating femoral vein thrombus in a patient with aspergillosis. Int Angiol. Mar 2000;19(1):75-8. [Medline].

  319. Nowak-Gottl U, Junker R, Hartmeier M, et al. Increased lipoprotein(a) is an important risk factor for venous thromboembolism in childhood. Circulation. Aug 17 1999;100(7):743-8. [Medline].

  320. O''Brien B, Levine M, Willan A, et al. Economic evaluation of outpatient treatment with low-molecular-weight heparin for proximal vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. Oct 25 1999;159(19):2298-304. [Medline].

  321. O''Donnell J, Mumford AD, Manning RA, et al. Elevation of FVIII: C in venous thromboembolism is persistent and independent of the acute phase response. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):10-3. [Medline].

  322. O''Sullivan GJ, Semba CP, Bittner CA, et al. Endovascular management of iliac vein compression (May-Thurner) syndrome. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Jul-Aug 2000;11(7):823-36. [Medline].

  323. Odeh M, Pick N, Oliven A. Deep venous thrombosis associated with acute brucellosis--a case report. Angiology. Mar 2000;51(3):253-6. [Medline].

  324. Oger E. Incidence of venous thromboembolism: a community-based study in Western France. EPI-GETBP Study Group. Groupe d''Etude de la Thrombose de Bretagne Occidentale. Thromb Haemost. May 2000;83(5):657-60. [Medline].

  325. Oral Contraceptive and Hemostasis Study Group. An open label, randomized study to evaluate the effects of seven monophasic oral contraceptive regimens on hemostatic variables. Outline of the protocol. Contraception. Jun 1999;59(6):345-55. [Medline].

  326. Ordonez AJ, Carreira JM, Alvarez CR, et al. Comparison of the risk of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis in the presence of factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A. Thromb Haemost. Feb 2000;83(2):352-4. [Medline].

  327. Orlando L, Colleoni M, Nole F, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in breast cancer patients during chemotherapy with vinorelbine, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil as continuous infusion (ViFuP regimen): is prophylaxis required?. Ann Oncol. Jan 2000;11(1):117-8. [Medline].

  328. Ostermann H. [Therapy of deep vein thrombophlebitis]. Internist (Berl). Jun 2000;41(6):597-8. [Medline].

  329. Ouriel K, Gray B, Clair DG, et al. Complications associated with the use of urokinase and recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for catheter-directed peripheral arterial and venous thrombolysis. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Mar 2000;11(3):295-8. [Medline].

  330. Ouriel K, Green RM, Greenberg RK. The anatomy of deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremity. J Vasc Surg. May 2000;31(5):895-900. [Medline].

  331. Owings JT, Gosselin RC, Battistella FD, et al. Whole blood D-dimer assay: an effective noninvasive method to rule out pulmonary embolism. J Trauma. May 2000;48(5):795-9; discussion 799-800. [Medline].

  332. Palestro CJ. Diagnosing deep venous thrombosis: dawn of a new era?. J Nucl Med. Jul 2000;41(7):1224-6. [Medline].

  333. Parker M. PEP trial. Pulmonary Embolism Prevention. Lancet. Jul 15 2000;356(9225):249; discussion 250-1. [Medline].

  334. Patel NH, McLennan G, Shah H. Introduction of a PTFE-covered long, spiral-articulated Palmaz stent through a 10-F sheath using umbilical wrapping technique. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Sep 1999;10(8):1063-6. [Medline].

  335. Patel NH, Plorde JJ, Meissner M. Catheter-directed thrombolysis in the treatment of phlegmasia cerulea dolens. Ann Vasc Surg. Sep 1998;12(5):471-5. [Medline].

  336. Pavcnik D, Uchida B, Timmermans H, Keller FS, Rösch J. Square stent: a new self-expandable endoluminal device and its applications. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. Jul-Aug 2001;24(4):207-17. [Medline].

  337. Pavcnik D, Uchida BT, Timmermans HA, Corless CL, O'Hara M, Toyota N. Percutaneous bioprosthetic venous valve: a long-term study in sheep. J Vasc Surg. Mar 2002;35(3):598-602. [Medline].

  338. Pazzagli M, Mazzantini D, Cella G, et al. Value of thrombin-antithrombin III complexes in major orthopedic surgery: relation to the onset of venous thromboembolism. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. Oct 1999;5(4):228-31. [Medline].

  339. Pearson SD, Blair R, Halpert A, et al. An outpatient program to treat deep venous thrombosis with low- molecular-weight heparin. Eff Clin Pract. Sep-Oct 1999;2(5):210-7. [Medline].

  340. Pecheniuk NM, Marsh NA, Walsh TP. Multiple analysis of three common genetic alterations associated with thrombophilia. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Mar 2000;11(2):183-9. [Medline].

  341. Pena-penabad C, Martinez W, del Pozo J, et al. Guess what! Superficial migratory thrombophlebitis. Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger''s disease). Eur J Dermatol. Jul-Aug 2000;10(5):405-6. [Medline].

  342. PEP. Prevention of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis with low dose aspirin: (PEP) trial. Lancet. Apr 15 2000;355(9212):1295-302. [Medline].

  343. Pereira de Godoy JM, Batigalia F. Bilateral pulmonary artery aneurysm associated with bilateral pulmonary thromboembolism, superior vena caval thrombosis, and Chagas'' disease--a case report. Angiology. Jul 2000;51(7):609-14. [Medline].

  344. Perry C, Berliner S. [Progesterone and the risk of arterial and venous thrombosis]. Harefuah. Apr 15 1998;134(8):633-7. [Medline].

  345. Phillips GW. Review of venous vascular ultrasound. World J Surg. Feb 2000;24(2):241-8. [Medline].

  346. Phipp LH, Scott DJ, Kessel D, et al. Subclavian stents and stent-grafts: cause for concern?. J Endovasc Surg. Aug 1999;6(3):223-6. [Medline].

  347. Piemontino U, Guiotto G, Rugiada F, et al. Abnormally high frequency of inherited pro-thrombotic conditions in subjects with recurrence of venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. Oct 1999;82(4):1359-60. [Medline].

  348. Pineo GF, Hull RD. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism following orthopedic surgery: mechanical and pharmacological approaches and the need for extended prophylaxis. Thromb Haemost. Aug 1999;82(2):918-24. [Medline].

  349. Pini M. Future prospects of prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Aug 1999;10 Suppl 2:S19-27. [Medline].

  350. Piovella F, Barone M. Long-term management of deep vein thrombosis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Aug 1999;10 Suppl 2:S117-22. [Medline].

  351. Pittman C, Reddy M, Reddy ER. Radiological evaluation of inferior vena cava obstruction: pictorial essay. Can Assoc Radiol J. Dec 1999;50(6):376-83. [Medline].

  352. Pless S, Pless TK, Dominguez H. Abnormalities and thrombosis of the inferior vena cava--a diagnostic dilemma. Rofo Fortschr Geb Rontgenstr Neuen Bildgeb Verfahr. Sep 1993;159(3):312-3. [Medline].

  353. Poulter NR. Risk of fatal pulmonary embolism with oral contraceptives. Lancet. Jun 17 2000;355(9221):2088. [Medline].

  354. Prakash RK, Netrawali MS, Pradhan DS. Ineffectiveness of rifampicin in inhibiting RNA synthesis in Escherichia coli and T(4)-infected Escherichia coli cells after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Biochim Biophys Acta. Apr 2 1975;383(4):435-40. [Medline].

  355. Rauwerda JA, Rijbroek A, Vahl AC. [Deep venous thrombosis of the arm: etiology, diagnosis and therapy]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. May 20 2000;144(21):1020-1. [Medline].

  356. Ray CE Jr, Shenoy SS, McCarthy PL, et al. Weekly prophylactic urokinase instillation in tunneled central venous access devices. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Nov-Dec 1999;10(10):1330-4. [Medline].

  357. Reekers JA, Blank LE. Iliocaval thrombosis: percutaneous treatment with hydrodynamic thrombectomy. Eur Radiol. 2000;10(2):326-8. [Medline].

  358. Reilly BM, Evans A. Cost-effectiveness of low-molecular-weight heparins for deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. Mar 21 2000;132(6):508-9. [Medline].

  359. Renner W, Koppel H, Hoffmann C, et al. Prothrombin G20210A, factor V Leiden, and factor XIII Val34Leu: common mutations of blood coagulation factors and deep vein thrombosis in Austria. Thromb Res. Jul 1 2000;99(1):35-9. [Medline].

  360. Rhee RY, Gloviczki P, Luthra HS, et al. Iliocaval complications of retroperitoneal fibrosis. Am J Surg. Aug 1994;168(2):179-83. [Medline].

  361. Rhodes JM, Cho JS, Gloviczki P, et al. Thrombolysis for experimental deep venous thrombosis maintains valvular competence and vasoreactivity. J Vasc Surg. Jun 2000;31(6):1193-205. [Medline].

  362. Ridker PM. Inherited risk factors for venous thromboembolism: implications for clinical practice. Clin Cornerstone. 2000;2(4):1-14. [Medline].

  363. Robinson DL, Teitelbaum GP. Phlegmasia cerulea dolens: treatment by pulse-spray and infusion thrombolysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Jun 1993;160(6):1288-90. [Medline].

  364. Rolfe MW, Solomon DA. Lower extremity venography : still the gold standard. Chest. Oct 1999;116(4):853-4. [Medline].

  365. Rosen SF, Clagett GP. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Curr Opin Hematol. Sep 1999;6(5):285-90. [Medline].

  366. Rosendaal FR. High levels of factor VIII and venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. Jan 2000;83(1):1-2. [Medline].

  367. Rosendaal FR. Venous thrombosis: prevalence and interaction of risk factors. Haemostasis. Dec 1999;29 Suppl S1:1-9. [Medline].

  368. Roussi J, Bentolila S, Boudaoud L, et al. Contribution of D-Dimer determination in the exclusion of deep venous thrombosis in spinal cord injury patients. Spinal Cord. Aug 1999;37(8):548-52. [Medline].

  369. Roy S, Laerum F, Brosstad F, et al. Sequestrated thrombolysis: comparative evaluation in vivo. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. Mar-Apr 2000;23(2):131-7. [Medline].

  370. Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Oral contraceptives and venous thromboembolism. New Zealand Committee, RANZCOG. N Z Med J. May 26 2000;113(1110):196. [Medline].

  371. Rubins JB, Rice K. Diagnosis of venous thromboembolism. Step-by-step approach to a still lethal disease. Postgrad Med. Jul 2000;108(1):175-80; quiz 16. [Medline].

  372. Rubinstein R, Kolia F, Novitzky N. Prevalence of Factor V Leiden in three ethnic groups of patients with deep vein thrombosis in the Western Cape province of South Africa. Eur J Haematol. Jul 2000;65(1):78-9. [Medline].

  373. Ruehm SG, Wiesner W, Debatin JF. Pelvic and lower extremity veins: contrast-enhanced three-dimensional MR venography with a dedicated vascular coil-initial experience. Radiology. May 2000;215(2):421-7. [Medline].

  374. Rutherford RB, Padberg FT Jr, Comerota AJ, et al. Venous severity scoring: An adjunct to venous outcome assessment. J Vasc Surg. Jun 2000;31(6):1307-12. [Medline].

  375. Salartash K, Lepore M, Gonze MD. Treatment of experimentally induced caval thrombosis with oral low molecular weight heparin and delivery agent in a porcine model of deep venous thrombosis. Ann Surg. Jun 2000;231(6):789-94. [Medline].

  376. Sandrick K. Using new D-dimer tests to rule out venous thromboembolism. CAP Today. Feb 2000;14(2):40-2, 44, 46-7. [Medline].

  377. Savage SA, Young G, Reaman GH. Catheter-directed thrombolysis in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and extensive deep vein thrombosis. Med Pediatr Oncol. Mar 2000;34(3):215-7. [Medline].

  378. Schambeck CM, Hinney K, Gleixner J, et al. Venous thromboembolism and associated high plasma factor VIII levels: linked to cytomegalovirus infection?. Thromb Haemost. Mar 2000;83(3):510-1. [Medline].

  379. Schneider DJ, Steyn PS, Mansvelt EP. Factor V Leiden mutation and the risk of thrombo-embolic disease in pregnancy: a case report. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. Aug 2000;91(2):197-8. [Medline].

  380. Semba CP, Bakal CW, Calis KA, et al. Alteplase as an alternative to urokinase. Advisory Panel on Catheter- Directed Thrombolytic Therapy. J Vasc Interv Radiol. Mar 2000;11(3):279-87. [Medline].

  381. Shen MC, Lin JS, Tsay W. Protein C and protein S deficiencies are the most important risk factors associated with thrombosis in Chinese venous thrombophilic patients in Taiwan. Thromb Res. Sep 1 2000;99(5):447-52. [Medline].

  382. Sheppard DR. Activated protein C resistance: the most common risk factor for venous thromboembolism. J Am Board Fam Pract. Mar-Apr 2000;13(2):111-5. [Medline].

  383. Siemens HJ, Gutsche S, Bruckner S, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in children without and in adults with and without thrombophilia. Thromb Res. May 15 2000;98(4):241-7. [Medline].

  384. Sivera P, Bosio S, Bertero MT, et al. G20210A homozygosity in antiphospholipid syndrome secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus. Haematologica. Jan 2000;85(1):109-10. [Medline].

  385. Spritzer CE, Arata MA, Freed KS. Isolated pelvic deep venous thrombosis: relative frequency as detected with MR imaging. Radiology. May 2001;219(2):521-5. [Medline].

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Keywords

deep vein thrombosis, venous thrombosis, thrombophlebitis, May-Thurner syndrome, Cockett syndrome, iliofemoral thrombosis, DVT, lower extremity thrombosis, lower-extremity thrombosis, leg thrombosis, lower extremity deep venous thrombosis, occlusions of the deep veins, below-knee thrombosis, venous thromboembolism, VTE, pulmonary embolus, pulmonary embolism, PE, post-thrombotic syndrome, postthrombotic syndrome, PTE

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Eric K Hoffer, MD, Director, Vascular and Interventional Radiology, Associate Professor of Radiology, Section of Angiography and Interventional Radiology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center
Eric K Hoffer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Heart Association, Radiological Society of North America, Society for Cardiac Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Interventional Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

John J Borsa, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, St Joseph Medical Center
John J Borsa, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Radiology, American Society of Neuroradiology, Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe, Radiological Society of North America, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, and Society of Interventional Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Anthony Watkinson, MD, Professor of Interventional Radiology, The Peninsula Medical School; Consultant and Senior Lecturer, Department of Radiology, The Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital, UK
Anthony Watkinson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Radiological Society of North America, Royal College of Radiologists, and Royal College of Surgeons of England
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Bernard D Coombs, MB, ChB, PhD, Consulting Staff, Department of Specialist Rehabilitation Services, Hutt Valley District Health Board, New Zealand
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Managing Editor

Douglas M Coldwell, MD, PhD,, Interventional Radiologist, Jane Phillips Medical Center, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
Douglas M Coldwell, MD, PhD, is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American College of Radiology, American Heart Association, American Physical Society, American Roentgen Ray Society, Society of Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology, Southwest Oncology Group, and Special Operations Medical Association
Disclosure: Sirtex, Inc. Consulting fee Speaking and teaching

CME Editor

Robert M Krasny, MD, Resolution Imaging Medical Corporation
Robert M Krasny, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Roentgen Ray Society and Radiological Society of North America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Kyung J Cho, MD, FACR, William Martel Professor of Radiology, Interventional Radiology Fellowship Director, University of Michigan Health System
Kyung J Cho, MD, FACR is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Radiology, American Heart Association, American Medical Association, American Roentgen Ray Society, Association of University Radiologists, and Radiological Society of North America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
HONcode

We subscribe to the
HONcode principles of the
Health On the Net Foundation

All material on this website is protected by copyright, Copyright© 1994- by Medscape.
This website also contains material copyrighted by 3rd parties.

DISCLAIMER: The content of this Website is not influenced by sponsors. The site is designed primarily for use by qualified physicians and other medical professionals. The information contained herein should NOT be used as a substitute for the advice of an appropriately qualified and licensed physician or other health care provider. The information provided here is for educational and informational purposes only. In no way should it be considered as offering medical advice. Please check with a physician if you suspect you are ill.