Hemorrhagic Shock Treatment & Management

The primary treatment of hemorrhagic shock is to control the source of bleeding as soon as possible and to replace fluid.

In controlled hemorrhagic shock (CHS), where the source of bleeding has been occluded, fluid replacement is aimed toward normalization of hemodynamic parameters. In uncontrolled hemorrhagic shock (UCHS), in which the bleeding has temporarily stopped because of hypotension, vasoconstriction, and clot formation, fluid treatment is aimed at restoration of radial pulse or restoration of sensorium or obtaining a blood pressure of 80 mm Hg by aliquots of 250 mL of lactated Ringer's solution (hypotensive resuscitation).

When evacuation time is shorter than 1 hour (usually urban trauma), immediate evacuation to a surgical facility is indicated after airway and breathing (A, B) have been secured ("scoop and run"). Precious time is not wasted by introducing an intravenous line. When expected evacuation time exceeds 1 hour, an intravenous line is introduced and fluid treatment is started before evacuation. The resuscitation should occur before, or concurrently with, any diagnostic studies.

Crystalloid is the first fluid of choice for resuscitation. Immediately administer 2 L of isotonic sodium chloride solution or lactated Ringer’s solution in response to shock from blood loss. Fluid administration should continue until the patient's hemodynamics become stabilized. Because crystalloids quickly leak from the vascular space, each liter of fluid expands the blood volume by 20-30%; therefore, 3 L of fluid need to be administered to raise the intravascular volume by 1 L.

Alternatively, colloids restore volume in a 1:1 ratio. Currently available colloids include human albumin, hydroxy-ethyl starch products (mixed in either 0.9% isotonic sodium chloride solution or lactated Ringer’s solution), or hypertonic saline-dextran combinations. The sole product that is avoided routinely in large-volume (>1500 mL/d) restoration is the hydroxy-ethyl starch product mixed in 0.9% isotonic sodium chloride solution because it has been associated with the induction of coagulopathy. The other products have not been so implicated.

PRBCs should be transfused if the patient remains unstable after 2000 mL of crystalloid resuscitation. For acute situations, O-negative noncrossmatched blood should be administered. Administer 2 U rapidly, and note the response. For patients with active bleeding, several units of blood may be necessary.

If at all possible, blood and crystalloid infusions should be delivered through a fluid warmer. A blood sample for type and cross should be drawn, preferably before blood transfusions are begun. Start type-specific blood when available. Patients who require large amounts of transfusion inevitably will become coagulopathic. FFP generally is infused when the patient shows signs of coagulopathy, usually after 6-8 U of PRBCs. Platelets become depleted with large blood transfusions. Platelet transfusion is also recommended when a coagulopathy develops.

In a large, comprehensive cohort study by Levi et al, placebo-controlled trials of recombinant factor VIIIa (rFVIIa) were examined.^[2] Off-label treatment with high doses of rFVIIa significantly increased the risk of arterial events but not venous thromboembolic events, especially among elderly patients.^[3]

The decision regarding whether to operate to control bleeding is complicated and beyond the scope of this article. Some generalities, however, may be advanced.

Acute life-threatening bleeding within the abdominal or thoracic cavity is an indication for operation.

Retroperitoneal bleeding is difficult to control operatively and generally is treated nonoperatively.

Severe upper GI bleeds should be managed first by EGD, with the possibility of cauterizing or injecting the bleeding source with epinephrine. Failure of endoscopic management usually is an indication for surgery.

Confirm the location of a lower GI bleed before operative intervention is performed.

Severe vaginal bleeding should prompt early involvement of the gynecologist. Ectopic pregnancies are treated with immediate surgery. Abruptio placenta is a true emergency and should prompt immediate cesarean section.

On occasion, consultation with a hematologist is essential. This is especially true if the coagulopathy fails to be corrected with standard measures. Increasingly recognized are the entities of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and acquired antibodies to native clotting factors. Consultation is useful in identifying the correct tests to obtain, as well as the full range of useful modalities to correct the underlying defect. These may include IV gamma-globulin infusion, plasmapheresis, or, simply, large-volume clotting factor repletion.