Partial Cystectomy 

  • Author: E Jason Abel, MD; Chief Editor: Bradley Fields Schwartz, DO, FACS   more...
 
Updated: Apr 2, 2012
 

Background

Definition

Partial or segmental cystectomy is a bladder-preserving treatment that involves full-thickness surgical removal of the bladder tumor and surrounding bladder wall.[1]

Key points

  • Only 5.8-18.9% of patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer are suitable candidates for partial cystectomy.
  • Partial cystectomy is indicated in the patient with a normally functioning bladder with good capacity and a solitary tumor located where a 1-cm to 2-cm resection margin is possible.
  • For high-risk tumor in a bladder diverticulum, a multimodal approach with preoperative chemotherapy and possible radiotherapy may be needed.
  • Absolute contraindications include carcinoma in situ (CIS) elsewhere in the bladder and multifocal tumors.
  • After surgery, ongoing surveillance, including imaging, cystoscopy, and cytology, is important because the local recurrence rate is high (37-78%).
  • Patients who have undergone partial cystectomy for bladder cancer should have cystoscopy and urinary cytologic examination every 3 months for at least 2 years. Regular CT scans of the pelvis and abdomen are recommended in the first several years of follow-up.

Partial cystectomy is used to treat both malignant and benign conditions of the bladder. Its primary malignant indication is for solitary, primary, muscle-invasive, or high-grade bladder cancer that does not involve specific regions of the bladder such as the bladder trigone, vesical neck, or posterior urethra and that can be resected with adequate surgical margins (1-2 cm). The classically described indication for partial cystectomy is for the removal of an adenocarcinoma or urachal carcinoma that develops in the dome of the bladder.

A better understanding of the natural history of urothelial carcinoma (transitional cell carcinoma) of the bladder has led to more stringent selection criteria for partial cystectomy; consequently, this procedure is being performed less frequently for malignant conditions (see Table 1). For example, the ideal clinical scenario would be if the bladder tumor was in an easily accessible location in the bladder, small in size (< 2cm) and no tumor(s) existed in the rest of the bladder. Partial cystectomy should only be considered if the cancer has not left its site of origin.

Despite advances in transurethral surgery for bladder tumors, some instances exist when the tumor can not be completely resected and partial cystectomy is not only indicated but the most definitive procedure. For example, the morbidly obese patient with a superficial bladder tumor located in the upper aspect of the posterior bladder wall or dome might require a partial cystectomy because the surgeon was unable to reach the tumor transurethrally. Other indications for partial cystectomy include a need for adequate biopsy of radiation-induced ulcerations, the presence of a tumor in a bladder diverticulum, patient choice, palliation of severe local symptoms, preservation of native bladder function and continence, and poor surgical risk for more aggressive procedures such as radical cystectomy.

A few benign conditions of the bladder can be managed with partial cystectomy. These include resection of bladder diverticula, colovesical fistula repair, vesicovaginal fistula repair and less commonly for cavernous hemangiomas, ulcerative interstitial cystitis, and localized endometriosis of the bladder.

Partial cystectomy has certain advantages over radical cystectomy, such as preserving a functionally continent native urinary reservoir and sparing of potency in males. In addition, because a separate urinary diversion procedure (as is necessary in radical cystectomy) is not performed, some surgeons view partial cystectomy as a less morbid operation, suited for high-risk patients and palliative situations. The main disadvantage of partial cystectomy lies in the high historical local recurrence rates of bladder cancer, with only part of a globally diseased urothelium addressed. Although partial cystectomy plays a limited role in the treatment of bladder cancer, in properly selected patients, similar oncologic results can be achieved as seen in patients treated with radical cystectomy. This review focuses on the current applications and indications for partial cystectomy, with an emphasis on the treatment of bladder cancer.

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History of the Procedure

Historically, this operation has been performed since the 19th century, when it was thought that many patients with bladder cancer would be ideal candidates. Little was known about how bladder cancer may affect the entire bladder despite the appearance of a solitary tumor. The widespread use of this operation in the mid 1950s led to high local recurrence rates from 37% to 78%.[2, 3] The advent and technical improvements of transurethral resection (TUR) has made it possible to initially resect most bladder tumors.

Table 1. Proportion of Patients With Bladder Cancer Treated With Partial Cystectomy (Open Table in a new window)

Source Total Patients With Bladder Cancer Patients Treated With Partial Cystectomy (%)
Utz et al (1973)3454199 (5.8)
Brannan et al (1978)55149 (7.1)
Faysal and Freiha (1979)859117 (13.6)
Merrell et al (1979)58554 (9.2)
Ojeda and Johnson (1983)39723 (5.8)
Jardin and Vallencien (1984)47590 (18.9)
Hayter et al (2000)20,822729 (3.5)
Holzbeierlein et al (2004)93558 (6.2)
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Epidemiology

Frequency

Based on the National Cancer Institutes SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 70,530 new cases of bladder cancer were estimated to be diagnosed in 2010, and 14,680 persons expected to die from the disease. Currently, the overall male-to-female patient ratio is approximately 4:1. The ratio of bladder cancer in Caucasian Americans compared with African Americans is 1.5-2.1:1. The median age of patients is 73 years at time of diagnosis, with incidence and mortality per pathologic grade increasing as a function of age. Since 1950, the incidence of bladder cancer has increased by 50%, but the overall mortality rate (primarily in men) has decreased by 33%. More than 500,000 people in the United States are survivors of bladder cancer.

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Etiology

The etiology of bladder cancer, a frequent indication for bladder resection, is unknown. Postulated theories include environmental carcinogens (eg, chemicals, ultraviolet light, radiation), aberration of normal cell growth regulation (eg, oncogene induction, suppressor gene negation), and abnormalities in the genetic composition of malignant cells.

Chemical exposures that may increase the risk of bladder cancer include aromatic amines, dietary nitrites, and nitrates. These include aniline dyes (eg, 2-naphthylamine, 4-aminobiphenyl, 4-nitrobiphenyl, 4-4-diaminobiphenyl [benzidine], 2-amino-1-naphthol), combustion gases, coal soot, chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, and acrolein dyes. Smoking is associated with an up to 4-fold increase in the risk of bladder cancer. Other implicated factors include coffee and tea, phenacetin (an analgesic), chronic cystitis, the presence of chronic indwelling catheters, bladder calculi, pelvic irradiation, and exposure to cyclophosphamide. Schistosomiasis of the urinary bladder is associated with a higher incidence of squamous cell carcinoma. Currently, no evidence links bladder cancer to heredity.

Recent investigations have addressed the arsenic content of drinking water. International studies in Taiwan, Chile, and Argentina have suggested that as little as 10.1 mcg/L of arsenic in drinking water increases the risk.[4, 5] In Taiwan, population studies of 8102 residents found that concentrations of 10-50, 50-100, and more than 100 mcg/L of arsenic in drinking water (compared with levels < 10 mcg/L) increase the relative risk of developing transitional cell carcinoma to 1.9, 8.2, and 15.3, respectively.[4] In Chile, studies of arsenic levels from 100-570 mcg/L revealed an elevated standardized mortality ratio of bladder cancer of 6 in men and 8.2 in women.[5] In the United States, estimates indicate that 350,000 persons are exposed to arsenic levels of more than 50 mcg/L and that 2.5 million are exposed to levels higher than 25 mcg/L. In one study, the relative risk estimate for an average level of arsenic in US drinking water was 1 in 1000 persons.[6]

Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes implicated in bladder cancer include TP53, retinoblastoma gene (Rb), p15, and p16. Alterations in TP53, a normal tumor suppressor gene that is found on chromosome 17p and that controls apoptosis, lead to more aggressive bladder cancers. Ongoing studies are exploring the clinical implications of these tumor suppressor genes. Currently, conventional staging and grading are sufficient.

The tumor suppressor gene Rb is found on chromosome 13q. A mutated Rb gene or phosphorylated Rb gene leads to dissociation of its product protein, pRB, from the normally complexed transcription factor, E2F. Dissociated E2F drives the transition from G1 to S phase in cellular mitosis.

Two more protein regulators encoded on chromosome 9p, p15 and p16, inhibit nuclear cyclin-dependent kinases from phosphorylating pRB. When p15 and p16 mutate, they can no longer prevent phosphorylation of pRB, resulting in dissociation of the pRB-E2F complex, and free E2F is allowed to stimulate the cell's G1- to S-phase proliferation. Very aggressive high-grade bladder tumors have been associated with alterations in TP53. Mutations in Rb, p15, and p16 have been associated with low-grade superficial tumors.

Bladder cancer often behaves as a field disease; the entire urothelium, from the renal pelvis to the urethra, is susceptible to malignant transformation. Transitional carcinoma cells may also have the ability to migrate and implant at different sites along the urothelium.

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Presentation

A thorough history should be obtained, and a thorough physical examination should be performed. In patients with bladder cancer, the most common presenting symptom is painless hematuria (85%). Hematuria is often intermittent; therefore, a single urinalysis finding may not be significant. Bladder irritability that manifests as urinary frequency, urgency, and dysuria is the second most common symptom. These symptoms rarely occur without hematuria (microscopic or gross). Flank pain due to ureteral obstruction, lower-extremity edema, and pelvic masses are other presenting symptoms. Symptoms of advanced disease, such as weight loss and abdominal or bone pain, are rare because patients usually seek medical attention before these develop.

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Indications

Indications for malignancy

Urothelial carcinoma (also called transitional cell carcinoma) accounts for the vast majority of bladder cancer in the United States. However, in some countries, squamous cell carcinoma is the dominant subtype of bladder cancer because of chronic infection with Schistosomiasis hematobium.

Partial cystectomy for urothelial carcinoma is recommended in properly selected cases. Suggested selection criteria include the following:

  • No history of multifocal bladder cancer (negative random bladder biopsies)
  • No evidence of metastatic disease
  • Absence of multiple lesions (including carcinoma in situ)
  • A solitary, high grade muscle-invasive tumor located in a position that is amenable to wide resection (ideally achieving 1-2 cm margins)
  • Tumor located away from the ureteral orifices (although resection and re-implantation is possible) and not involving bladder neck or prostate
  • Expectation that the residual postoperative bladder will have adequate capacity and compliance to ensure functionality

As a result of such strict criteria, relatively few patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer are candidates for bladder-sparing surgery.[7] The most common lesions amenable to partial cystectomy are high-grade tumors located in the lateral walls or dome of the bladder.

Cancer in bladder diverticula

Diverticular cancers comprise 1.5-10% of all bladder cancers and are more likely to penetrate the bladder wall because of the relatively thin nature of the wall and its lack of thick muscular layers. Transurethral resection of the tumor may be an option; however, inadvertent perforation is possible because of the paucity of muscle fibers in the diverticulum, which may lead to dissemination of urothelial cancer cells. Urothelial carcinoma in a bladder diverticulum is a common reason for performing partial cystectomy. Historical series suggested a high rate of recurrence and poor prognosis for diverticular tumors, but more contemporary data suggest that complete tumor resection with partial cystectomy results in 5-year disease-specific survival rates of around 70%.[8]

Partial cystectomy for cancers other than urothelial carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma has a poor prognosis and is not responsive to chemotherapy and radiation. Although some series describe feasibility of partial cystectomy, this approach has not been studied extensively because of the low prevalence in the western world (3-7% in the United States).[9] In contrast, 75% of all bladder cancers in Egypt are of squamous cell derivation because of S hematobium infection. In some reports, bilharzial bladder cancer (bladder cancer associated with Schistosomiasis) has a similar prognosis to transitional cell cancer when compared stage-for-stage, but whether this is true for nonbilharzial squamous cell carcinoma is unclear.

Primary adenocarcinoma of the bladder may be treated with partial cystectomy in select cases. Urachal lesions, which represent 20-40% of all primary bladder adenocarcinomas, are thought to arise from residual transitional cells that line the urachal remnant in the dome of the bladder. Historically, the overall, 5-year survival rate associated with urachal adenocarcinoma has been poor (6-15%).

However, recent evidence has shown that extended partial cystectomy with removal of the bladder segment, posterior rectus fascia, peritoneum, and umbilicus offers the best chance for survival. In a study by Dandekar et al, the 5-year survival rate after partial cystectomy for urachal adenocarcinoma was 56.3%.[10] Herr found that contained urachal adenocarcinomas that were completely resected using extended partial cystectomy had a favorable disease-free rate (77%).[11] Following partial cystectomy, cure rates of well-differentiated urachal adenocarcinomas have been reported to approach 100%.

Rectal, colon, prostate, uterus, cervix, or ovarian cancers that are locally advanced can be treated with partial cystectomy in selected cases, although pelvic exenteration may be required. A local recurrence rate of 17% and a 3-year survival rate of 39-74% has been reported with negative surgical margins.[12, 13]

Rhabdomyosarcomas of the bladder comprise 17-50% of all genitourinary rhabdomyosarcomas. These patients have also been successfully treated with partial cystectomy as an alternative to complete, radical cystectomy or chemotherapy. Disease-free survival rates have been reported as high as 78.5% with a 2-16 year follow-up after partial cystectomy with or without neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation. Most of these patients were able to retain functional bladders with minimal lower urinary tract symptoms.[14]

Benign conditions

Nonmalignant conditions of the bladder can also be managed with partial cystectomy. These conditions include bladder diverticula, cystic hydatid disease, cavernous hemangiomas, paraganglioma, leiomyomas, refractory interstitial cystitis, colovesical fistula, vesicovaginal fistula and endometriosis of the bladder.[15, 16]

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Relevant Anatomy

The adult bladder is located in the anterior pelvis and is enveloped by extraperitoneal fat and connective tissue. It is separated from the pubic symphysis by an anterior prevesical space known as the retropubic space (of Retzius). The dome of the bladder is covered by peritoneum, and the bladder neck is fixed to neighboring structures by reflections of the pelvic fascia and by true ligaments of the pelvis.

The body of the bladder receives support from the external urethral sphincter muscle and the perineal membrane inferiorly and the obturator internus muscles laterally (see the image below).

Gross anatomy of the bladder. Gross anatomy of the bladder.

For more information about the relevant anatomy, see Bladder Anatomy. See also Female Urethra Anatomy, Female Urinary Organ Anatomy, Male Urethra Anatomy, and Male Urinary Organ Anatomy.

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Contraindications

In patients with bladder cancer being considered for partial cystectomy, the entire urothelial tract from the kidneys to the urethra must be evaluated thoroughly. Prior to surgery, no other malignant disease should be anywhere in the urinary tract. The presence of multifocal disease or CIS is considered an absolute contraindication to partial cystectomy.

Other contraindications to partial cystectomy include the following:

  • Cellular atypia in random biopsy specimens
  • Prostatic invasion
  • Trigonal invasion
  • Presence of lymphovascular invasion in biopsy specimen
  • Inability to achieve adequate surgical margins
  • Prior radiation therapy
  • Inadequate bladder volume following resection
  • Evidence of metastatic disease
  • Poor presurgery performance status conveying high surgical risk
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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

E Jason Abel, MD  Assistant Professor of Urologic Oncology, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health; Attending Urologist, William S Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Aaron M Potretzke, MD  Resident Physician, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

Aaron M Potretzke, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association and Minnesota Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Kelvin Wong, MD  Resident Physician, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

Kelvin Wong, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons and American Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Tracy M Downs, MD  Associate Professor, Director of Bladder Cancer and Intravesical Therapy Programs, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health; Attending Urologist, Merriter Hospital and William S Middleton Memorial Veterans Affairs Hospital

Tracy M Downs, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, and Society of Urologic Oncology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Gamal Mostafa Ghoniem, MD, FACS  Professor of Urology, Chief, Division of Female Urology, Pelvic Reconstructive Surgery, and Voiding Dysfunction, Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine

Gamal Mostafa Ghoniem, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urogynecologic Society, American Urological Association, International Continence Society, International Urogynaecology Association, and Society of Urodynamics and Female Urology

Disclosure: Astellas Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Coloplasty Consulting fee Board membership; Uroplasty Consulting fee Consulting

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

J Stuart Wolf Jr, MD, FACS  The David A Bloom Professor of Urology, Director, Division of Endourology and Stone Disease, Department of Urology, University of Michigan Medical School

J Stuart Wolf Jr, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, Catholic Medical Association, Endourological Society, Society for Urology and Engineering, Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, Society of University Urologists, and Society of Urologic Oncology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Bradley Fields Schwartz, DO, FACS  Professor of Urology, Director, Center for Laparoscopy and Endourology, Department of Surgery, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine

Bradley Fields Schwartz, DO, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, Association of Military Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons, Endourological Society, Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, and Society of University Urologists

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Martin I Resnick, MD; Jason T Jankowski, MD; Edward E Cherullo, MD; Matthew L Steinway, MD; and Adrian H Feng, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

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Papillary bladder tumors such as this one are typically of low stage and grade (Ta-G1). Courtesy of Abbott and Vysis Inc.
Gross anatomy of the bladder.
Table 1. Proportion of Patients With Bladder Cancer Treated With Partial Cystectomy
Source Total Patients With Bladder Cancer Patients Treated With Partial Cystectomy (%)
Utz et al (1973)3454199 (5.8)
Brannan et al (1978)55149 (7.1)
Faysal and Freiha (1979)859117 (13.6)
Merrell et al (1979)58554 (9.2)
Ojeda and Johnson (1983)39723 (5.8)
Jardin and Vallencien (1984)47590 (18.9)
Hayter et al (2000)20,822729 (3.5)
Holzbeierlein et al (2004)93558 (6.2)
Table 2. Options Other than Partial Cystectomy
Study Number of Patients Induction Therapy % Complete Response Consolidation Therapy % Overall Survival (years) % Overall Survival with Bladder Intact (years)
Housset et al120Bifractionated XRT + concurrent cisplatin + 5-fluorouracil77Bifractionated XRT + concurrent 5-fluorouracil + cisplatin63 (5)...
Sauer et al18445-54 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin or carboplatin80None56 (5)41 (5)
Fellin et al562 cycles MCVa, 40 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin5024 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin55 (5)41 (5)
Tester et al4940 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin6624 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin60 (4)42 (4)
Tester et al912 cycles MCV, 39.6 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin7525.2 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin62 (4)44 (4)
Shipley et al612 cycles MCVa, 39.6 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin6125.2 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin48 (5)36 (5)
Shipley et al6239.6 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin5525.2 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin49 (5)40 (5)
Kachnic et al1062 cycles MCV, 40 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin6624.8 Gy XRT + concurrent cisplatin52 (5)43 (5)
Zietman et al18Bifractionated XRT + concurrent cisplatin + 5-fluorouracil78Bifractionated XRT + concurrent cisplatin + 5-fluorouracil + 3 cycles MCV83 (3)78 (3)
Table 3. Various Studies and Their Corresponding Recurrence Rates
Studies Recurrence rates
Resnick and O'Connor (1973)76%
Evans and Texter (1975)40%
Novick and Stewart (1976)50%
Peress et al (1977)54%
Cummings et al (1978)49%
Schoborg et al (1979)70%
Faysal and Freiha (1979)78%
Jardin and Vallencien (1984)78%
Lindahl et al (1984)58%
Kaneti (1986)38%
Dandekar et al (1995)43%
Holzbeierlein et al (2004)19%
Kassouf et al (2006)49%
Table 4. Survival Rates by Tumor Grade
Source Five-year Survival (%)Ten-year Survival (%)
Grade IGrade IIGrade III/IVGrade IGrade IIGrade III/IV
Magri (1962)883334---
Utz et al (1973)1004839---
Novick and Stewart (1976)10075400678
Brannan et al (1978)506255503330
Cummings et al (1978)1009632---
Schoborg et al (1979)75622650284
Faysal and Freiha (1979)100533025208
Merrell et al (1979)78562283320
Kaneti (1986)754646---
Dandekar et al (1995)10094.453.5---
Table 5. Survival Rates by Tumor Stage
Source Five-year Survival (%) Ten-year Survival (%)
T0T1T2T3T4OverallT0T1T2T3T4Overall
Magri (1962)-803826042------
Long et al (1962)80674390-------
Cox et al (1969)--2016--------
Resnick and O'Connor (1978)75717712.52035------
Utz et al (1973)-684729039------
Evans and Texter (1975)-69431400-----21
Novick and Stewart (1976)-675320-46-6744--36
Brannan et al (1978)100695433057-313611-32
Cummings et al (1978)-79806-60------
Schoborg et al (1979)6969291210043-3700012
Faysal and Freiha (1979)7558297040211513709
Merrell et al (1979)1001006725-48-100330032
Lindahl et al (1984)-5938--42-4825-038
Kaneti (1986)-684033048------
Smaldone et al (2008)-----70
a Stage T3a/T3b
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