eMedicine Specialties > Urology > Cancer, Bladder, Penis, and Urethra

Cystectomy, Radical

Author: Scott E Eggener, MD, Fellow in Urologic Oncology, Department of Urology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
Coauthor(s): Steven C Campbell, MD, PhD, Professor of Surgery, Division of Urologic Oncology, Cleveland Clinic
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Mar 6, 2008

Introduction

In the United States, bladder cancer is the fifth most common cancer (following cancers of the lung, colon, prostate, and breast) and the fourth most common among men. More than 90% of bladder cancers are transitional cell in origin, while, in countries with high endemic schistosomiasis rates (eg, Egypt and the NileRiverValley), squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder is more common.

Lesions limited to the urothelium [pCIS], mucosa [pTa], or lamina propria [pT1] represent 70-80% of all newly diagnosed bladder cancer cases. Although prone to recurrences and, less commonly, progression to higher-stage disease, these lesions are typically managed with transurethral resection and selectively with intravesical chemotherapy, such as bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), mitomycin, or thiotepa. Patients with pT1 disease, particularly those with high-risk features (eg, multifocality, recurrence after intravesical therapy, extensive lamina propria invasion, concomitant carcinoma in situ [CIS]) are at considerable risk of disease progression and may benefit from early radical cystoprostatectomy.

Muscle-invasive bladder cancer, defined as tumors that invade the muscularis propria (pT2 or higher), requires more intensive therapy. To date, surgical resection via radical cystoprostatectomy (bladder and prostate) and pelvic lymph node dissection remains the criterion standard for determining accurate pathologic staging, optimizing curative potential, and minimizing the risk of tumor recurrence.

History of the Procedure

The first record of a radical cystectomy dates to the late 1800s. In 1949, Marshall and Whitmore described the basic surgical principles of radical cystoprostatectomy. In 1987, following the neuroanatomic mapping of the pelvic plexus by Schlegel and Walsh, nerve-sparing cystectomy became a surgical option that allowed for preservation of sexual function.1

For many years, radical cystectomy carried a significant perioperative mortality rate (5-10%). However, presumably because of improvements in surgical technique, the evolution of intensive care medicine, and the availability of new antibiotics, radical cystectomy is now a common procedure in major medical centers and carries a perioperative mortality rate of approximately 2-3%.2 At high-volume centers with postoperative pathway care programs, an ICU stay is no longer routine and the median hospital stay is 7 days.

Problem

Bladder cancer can be axiomatically subdivided into non–muscle invasive and muscle-invasive disease. This article focuses primarily on the management of muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) and the role of radical cystectomy. For a more in-depth review of the management of non–muscle invasive bladder cancer, see Bladder Cancer.

Frequency

United States

  • More than 90% of bladder cancers are TCCs.
  • Bladder cancer diagnoses increased by 36% from 1984-1993.
  • In the United States, up to 600,000 people have bladder cancer. In 2006, an estimated 60,000 new cases of bladder cancer were diagnosed, and 12,000 persons died of the disease.
  • The male-to-female incidence ratio is 2.9:1, and the male-to-female mortality ratio is 2.2:1.
  • Bladder cancer is more common in whites than in African Americans.
  • The average age at diagnosis is 65 years.

International

  • In 1996, an estimated 310,000 new cases of bladder cancer were diagnosed worldwide.
  • The incidence rate in Western Europe and North America is higher than in East Asian countries.
  • In developing countries, many bladder cancers are squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) caused by the parasite Schistosoma haematobium. In high-prevalence regions, such as the NileRiverValley, SCC of the bladder has enormous health implications (eg, SCC is the most common solid tumor in Egyptian men).

Etiology

Environmental risk factors

  • Tobacco accounts for 50% of all bladder cancer cases; people who smoke heavily quintuple their risk. The carcinogenic components of tobacco include 4-aminobiphenyl, nitrosamine, 2-naphthylamine, and oxygen-derived free radicals.
  • Exposure to aromatic amines found in some dyes, paints, solvents, leather dust, inks, combustion products, rubbers, and textiles is a risk factor.
  • Prior radiation therapy is a risk factor; women who have undergone pelvic radiation (eg, for cervical cancer) have a 2- to 4-fold increased incidence rate.
  • Treatment with cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan, Neosar) and ifosfamide (Ifex) may lead to the development of bladder cancer through their metabolite acrolein. Following high-dose cyclophosphamide treatment, the 12-year prevalence of bladder cancer is as high as 11%.
  • Low daily fluid intake may be a contributing factor; the relative risk in persons who drink 6 cups of water per day is 0.49 compared with that in persons who drink one cup of water per day.
  • Schistosomiasis caused by the parasite S haematobium can cause SCC; this is common in Egypt and the NileRiverValley.
  • Long-term phenacetin use is a risk factor; this agent is no longer approved for use in the United States.
  • Long-term placement of indwelling catheters is a risk factor; patients who have indwelling catheters for longer than 10 years should undergo bladder surveillance via cytology and cystoscopy.
  • Artificial sweeteners (saccharin, cyclamate), when administered in high doses to laboratory animals, are risk factors for bladder cancer; no similar evidence has been shown in humans.

Pathophysiology

As with most neoplasms, bladder carcinogenesis is a complex multistep process that is not fully understood. Activation of proto-oncogenes, loss or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes, and abnormal growth factor or receptor expression have been implicated.

Multiple mutations of chromosome 9 have been identified in bladder cancer cells, and 68% of advanced tumors exhibit such mutations. Mutations of the TP53 and retinoblastoma tumor suppressor genes are common in patients with advanced bladder cancer. Mutations and nuclear accumulation of TP53 have been correlated with an increased grade, stage, and recurrence risk.

The risk of progression to muscle-invasive disease is associated with tumor grade, stage (Ta vs T1), size, number of lesions (solitary vs multiple lesions), previous tumor recurrence, and presence of CIS.

Presentation

Gross or microscopic hematuria is the initial presenting sign in 80-90% of patients. Approximately 20% of patients have irritative symptoms such as urinary urgency, dysuria, or frequency. This presentation is typical in patients with diffuse CIS, which can be confused with a urinary tract infection and can result in a delayed diagnosis. With the more routine use of cross-sectional imaging, many bladder lesions are incidentally diagnosed. Patients with muscle-invasive disease can present with incidental or symptomatic obstructive hydroureteronephrosis or, less commonly, with metastatic deposits.

Indications

Indications for radical cystectomy include the following:

  • Infiltrating muscle-invasive bladder cancer without evidence of metastasis or with low-volume, resectable locoregional metastases (stage T2-T3b)
  • Superficial bladder tumors characterized by any of the following:
    • Refractory to cystoscopic resection and intravesical chemotherapy or immunotherapy
    • Extensive disease not amenable to cystoscopic resection
    • Invasive prostatic urethral involvement
  • Stage-pT1, grade-3 tumors unresponsive to intravesical BCG vaccine therapy
  • CIS refractory to intravesical immunotherapy or chemotherapy
  • Palliation for pain, bleeding, or urinary frequency
  • Primary adenocarcinoma, SCC, or sarcoma

Indications for urethrectomy include the following:

  • Tumor in the anterior urethra
  • Prostatic stromal invasion that is noncontiguous with the primary
  • Positive urethral margin during radical cystectomy
  • Diffuse CIS of bladder, prostatic ducts, or prostatic urethra (a relative indication)

Rarely, radical cystoprostatectomy is indicated for salvage treatment for recurrent prostate cancer following primary therapy with radiation.

Relevant Anatomy

The bladder is an extraperitoneal muscular urine reservoir that lies behind the pubis symphysis in the pelvis. At the dome of the bladder lies the median umbilical ligament, a fibrous cord that is anchored to the umbilicus and that represents the obliterated urachus. This ligament contains vessels that must be ligated when divided. The ureters approach the bladder obliquely and posterosuperiorly and enter the bladder at the trigone. The intravesical ureteral orifices are roughly 2-3 cm apart and form the superolateral borders of the trigone. The trigone consists of the area between the interureteric ridge and the bladder neck. The bladder neck serves as an internal sphincter, which is sacrificed during a radical cystectomy.

In males, the seminal vesicles, vas deferens, ureters, and rectum border the inferoposterior aspect of the bladder. Anterior to the bladder is the space of Retzius, which is composed of fibroadipose tissue and the prevesical fascia. The dome and posterior surface of the bladder are covered by parietal peritoneum, which reflects superiorly to the seminal vesicles and is continuous with the anterior rectal peritoneum. In females, the posterior peritoneal reflection is continuous with the uterus and vagina.

The vascular supply to the bladder arrives primarily via the internal iliac (hypogastric) arteries, branching into the superior, middle, and inferior vesical arteries, which are often recognizable as lateral and posterior pedicles. The arterial supply also arrives via the obturator and inferior gluteal artery and, in females, via the uterine and vaginal arteries. Bladder venous drainage is a rich network that often parallels the named arterial vessels, most of which ultimately drain into the internal iliac vein.

Recent extensive anatomic pathology studies have determined that initial lymphatic drainage from the bladder is primarily into the external iliac, obturator, internal iliac (hypogastric), and common iliac nodes. Following the drainage to these sentinel pelvic regions, spread may continue to the presacral, paracaval, interaortocaval, and paraaortic lymph node chains. For a more detailed explanation of lymphatic drainage, see Treatment.

Contraindications

Contraindications to radical cystectomy include (1) bleeding diathesis, (2) evidence of gross, unresectable metastatic disease (unless performed for palliation), and (3) medical comorbidities that preclude operative intervention (eg, advanced heart disease, poor pulmonary mechanics, advanced age).

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Multimedia: Cystectomy, Radical
References
Further Reading
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Further Reading

For additional information, see Medscape's Bladder Cancer Resource Center.

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Keywords

radical cystectomy, radical cystoprostatectomy, anterior pelvic exenteration, bladder cancer, superficial bladder cancer, muscle-invasive bladder cancer, muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma, TCC, squamous cell carcinoma, SCC, Schistosoma haematobium, S haematobium, carcinoma in situ, CIS, bladder barbotage, transurethral resection of bladder tumor, TURBT, cystoprostatectomy, urethrectomy, anterior pelvic exenteration, urinary diversion/reconstruction, orthotopic neobladder, Indiana pouch, ileal conduit, muscularis propria, bladder-sparing multimodality therapy, pelvic lymph node dissection, nerve-sparing cystectomy, proto-oncogenes, total gross painless hematuria, cystoscopic resection, diverticulectomy, prostatic urethral involvement, bilateral pelvic lymphadenectomy, continent cutaneous urinary diversions, incontinent cutaneous urinary diversion, Studer pouch, prostate-sparing approach, cyclophosphamide, phenacetin, schistosomiasis, indwelling catheter

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Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Scott E Eggener, MD, Fellow in Urologic Oncology, Department of Urology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
Scott E Eggener, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Urological Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Steven C Campbell, MD, PhD, Professor of Surgery, Division of Urologic Oncology, Cleveland Clinic
Steven C Campbell, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Sigma Xi
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Richard A Santucci, MD, FACS, Chief of Urology, Detroit Receiving Hospital; Specialist-in-Chief of Urology, Detroit Medical Center; Chief of Urologic Trauma Surgery, Sinai Grace Hospital; Director, The Center for Urologic Reconstruction
Richard A Santucci, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, and Société Internationale d'Urologie (International Society of Urology)
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

J Stuart Wolf, Jr, MD, FACS, David A Bloom Professor of Urology, Director, Division of Minimally Invasive Urology, Department of Urology, University of Michigan Medical Center
J Stuart Wolf, Jr, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Urological Association, Catholic Medical Association, Endourological Society, Society for Urology and Engineering, Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, and Society of University Urologists
Disclosure: Terumo Corporation Consulting fee Consulting; Omeros Corporation Consulting fee Consulting

Chief Editor

Bradley Fields Schwartz, DO, FACS, Associate Professor of Urology, Director, Center for Laparoscopy and Endourology, Department of Surgery, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine
Bradley Fields Schwartz, DO, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urological Association, Association of Military Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons, Endourological Society, Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, and Society of University Urologists
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
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