Small-Bowel Obstruction 

A small-bowel obstruction (SBO) is caused by a variety of pathologic processes. The leading cause of SBO in industrialized countries is postoperative adhesions (60%), followed by malignancy, Crohn disease, and hernias, although some studies have reported Crohn disease as a greater etiologic factor than neoplasia. Surgeries most closely associated with SBO are appendectomy, colorectal surgery, and gynecologic and upper gastrointestinal (GI) procedures (see the image below). (See Etiology.)

One study from Canada reported a higher frequency of SBO after colorectal surgery, followed by gynecologic surgery, hernia repair, and appendectomy. Lower abdominal and pelvic surgeries lead to obstruction more often than upper GI surgeries. (See Etiology.)

SBOs can be partial or complete, simple (ie, nonstrangulated) or strangulated. Strangulated obstructions are surgical emergencies. If not diagnosed and properly treated, vascular compromise leads to bowel ischemia and further morbidity and mortality. Because as many as 40% of patients have strangulated obstructions, differentiating the characteristics and etiologies of obstruction is critical to proper patient treatment. SBO accounts for 20% of all acute surgical admissions. (See Clinical, Workup, and Treatment.)

Small-bowel obstruction (SBO) leads to proximal dilatation of the intestine due to accumulation of GI secretions and swallowed air. This bowel dilatation stimulates cell secretory activity, resulting in more fluid accumulation. This leads to increased peristalsis above and below the obstruction, with frequent loose stools and flatus early in its course.

Vomiting occurs if the level of obstruction is proximal. Increasing small-bowel distention leads to increased intraluminal pressures. This can cause compression of mucosal lymphatics, leading to bowel wall lymphedema. With even higher intraluminal hydrostatic pressures, increased hydrostatic pressure in the capillary beds results in massive third spacing of fluid, electrolytes, and proteins into the intestinal lumen. The fluid loss and dehydration that ensue may be severe and contribute to increased morbidity and mortality.

Strangulated SBOs are most commonly associated with adhesions and occur when a loop of distended bowel twists on its mesenteric pedicle. The arterial occlusion leads to bowel ischemia and necrosis. If left untreated, this progresses to perforation, peritonitis, and death.

Bacteria in the gut proliferate proximal to the obstruction. Microvascular changes in the bowel wall allow translocation to the mesenteric lymph nodes. This is associated with an increase in the incidence of bacteremia due to Escherichia coli, but the clinical significance is unclear.

The most common cause of small-bowel obstruction (SBO) is postsurgical adhesions. Postoperative adhesions can be the cause of acute obstruction within 4 weeks of surgery or of chronic obstruction decades later. The incidence of SBO parallels the increasing number of laparotomies performed in developing countries.

Prevention of SBO may be essentially limited to decreasing the risk of adhesion formation by decreasing the number of intra-abdominal procedures (ie, laparotomies) and resultant scar formation. In a study by Van Der Wal et al, the incidence of chronic abdominal symptoms was significantly reduced after the use of a hyaluronic acid ̶ carboxymethylcellulose membrane (Seprafilm). However, Seprafilm placement did not provide protection against SBO.^[1]

Another commonly identified cause of SBO is an incarcerated groin hernia. Other etiologies include malignant tumor (20%), hernia (10%), inflammatory bowel disease (5%), volvulus (3%), and miscellaneous causes (2%). The causes of SBO in pediatric patients include congenital atresia, pyloric stenosis, and intussusception.

With proper diagnosis and treatment of the obstruction, prognosis in small-bowel obstruction (SBO) is good. Complete obstructions treated successfully nonoperatively have a higher incidence of recurrence than do those treated surgically.

Complications of SBO include the following:

• Sepsis
• Intra-abdominal abscess
• Wound dehiscence
• Aspiration
• Short-bowel syndrome (as a result of multiple surgeries)
• Death (secondary to delayed treatment)

Mortality and morbidity are dependent on the early recognition and correct diagnosis of obstruction. If untreated, strangulated obstructions cause death in 100% of patients. If surgery is performed within 36 hours, the mortality rate decreases to 8%. The mortality rate is 25% if the surgery is postponed beyond 36 hours in these patients.

Some factors associated with death and postoperative complications include age, comorbidity, and treatment delay. According to one Norwegian group, morbidity and mortality decreased from 1961 to 1995.