Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Agent Toxicity 

  • Author: Timothy J Wiegand, MD; Chief Editor: Asim Tarabar, MD   more...
 
Updated: May 20, 2010
 

Background

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been prescribed extensively throughout the world. More than 70 million prescriptions for NSAIDs are written each year in the United States. With over-the-counter use included, more than 30 billion doses of NSAIDs are consumed annually in the United States alone. Most commonly ingested NSAIDs have few toxic effects, even when taken in significant quantities; however, with the numbers of both prescriptions and consumption of over-the-counter (OTC) NSAIDs increasing every year, so do the numbers of overdoses and NSAID-related complications reported to poison control centers around the country. Additionally, adverse events related to drug interactions, or exposure to vulnerable patients with disease states that predispose patients to NSAID toxicity, are common and may result in significant morbidity and mortality.

NSAID toxicity in the setting of acute drug overdose as well as factors predisposing individuals to adverse effects from NSAIDs are described below.

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Pathophysiology

More than 20 drugs fall under the category of NSAID. The major effect of all NSAIDs is to decrease the synthesis of prostaglandins by reversibly inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX), an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxanes from the precursor, arachidonic acid. This is in contrast to salicylates (eg, aspirin), which irreversibly bind to COX and inhibit production for the entire life of the cell, or acetaminophen, which inhibits COX centrally. The result of NSAID-induced COX inhibition is decreased production of prostaglandins, which leads to decreased pain and inflammation. CNS, hemodynamic, pulmonary, and hepatic dysfunction may occur with certain agents, but the relationship to prostaglandin production remains uncertain. Prostaglandins are involved in maintaining GI mucosal integrity as well as regulating renal blood flow and both acute and chronic toxicity often involves the GI and renal systems.

Two isoforms of cyclooxygenase have been identified. Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) has been proposed to generate prostaglandins that maintain organ function, protect the integrity of the gastric mucosa, and generate platelet-derived thromboxane responsible for platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction. COX-1 is expressed in all tissues, whereas cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is induced during the inflammatory response and produces prostaglandins that mediate pain and inflammation. COX-2 is also expressed in kidneys and vascular endothelium. Classic, older NSAIDs (eg, ibuprofen) inhibit COX-1 more than COX-2, whereas the newer class of NSAIDs (eg, celecoxib, valdecoxib, rofecoxib) inhibit COX-2 predominately, decreasing gastrointestinal adverse effects. Selectivity of inhibition may be lost during overdose, however.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

In 2007, calls to US Poison Control Centers (as documented by the American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System [AAPCC NPDS]) included 307,590 number of case mentions with NSAIDs involved (other than salicylates). Of these calls, 205,245 cases were found to be due to single exposures. More than 100,000 NSAID calls involved co-ingestants, or more than one substance causing potential toxicity.[1]

Out of 79,130 case mentions for ibuprofen in the 2007 AAPCC NPDS Annual Report, 10,557 patients were treated in a health care facility. Of these patients, 537 patients were described as having moderate toxicity and 35 patients developed major toxicity (categories defined below). No deaths were reported. Out of 12,620 case mentions for naproxen, 2,379 patients were treated in a health care facility. Of these patients, 175 developed moderate toxicity and 6 patients developed major toxicity from naproxen overdose/poisoning.

In 2007, according to AAPCC NPDS data, 2 deaths were attributed to acute NSAID overdose in 2007, both secondary to massive ingestion of naproxen.[1]

Profile of single-substance NSAID exposures from 2Profile of single-substance NSAID exposures from 2007 American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System (AAPCC NPDS).

AAPCC NPDS data are coded by outcome, as follows:

  • Outcome – None
  • Outcome – Minor toxicity: Minimally bothersome with rapid resolution (eg, self-limited GI symptoms, drowsiness, skin irritation, sinus tachycardia without hypotension)
  • Outcome – Moderate toxicity: More pronounced, more prolonged, or more systemic in nature than minor symptoms. Usually, some form of treatment is indicated. Symptoms are not life-threatening, and the patient is without residual disability or effect (eg, acid-base disturbance, high fever, hypotension that responds to treatment, isolated brief seizures that respond to treatment).
  • Outcome – Major toxicity: Potentially life-threatening or that results in significant residual disability or disfigurement (eg, seizures with status epilepticus, respiratory compromise requiring endotracheal intubation, ventricular tachycardia with hypotension, cardiac or respiratory arrest)
  • Outcome - Death

Mortality/Morbidity

Both acute and chronic poisoning with NSAIDs results in significant morbidity and mortality. The Arthritis, Rheumatism, and Aging Medical Information System (ARAMIS) system has estimated that more than 100,000 hospitalizations and more than 16,000 deaths in the United States each year are due to NSAID-related complications with costs greater than $2 billion. Gastrointestinal (GI), renal, central nervous system (CNS), hematologic, and dermatologic symptoms may ensue (see Complications).

Race

No scientific evidence has demonstrated that outcomes of NSAID toxicity are based on race.

Sex

No scientific evidence has demonstrated that outcomes of NSAID toxicity are based on sex.

Age

Most NSAID exposures are in children younger than 6 years.

Age profile of single-substance exposures from 200Age profile of single-substance exposures from 2007 American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System (AAPCC NPDS).
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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Timothy J Wiegand, MD  Director, Ruth A Lawrence Poison and Drug Information Center, Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine and Emergency Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center and Strong Memorial Hospital

Timothy J Wiegand, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, American College of Medical Toxicology, and American College of Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Jingjing Hu, MD  Attending Physician, Department of Internal Medicine, Maine Medical Center, Portland

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michele B Delenick, MD  Hospitalist, Maine Hospitalist Service, Department of Internal Medicine, Maine Medical Center, Portland

Michele B Delenick, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Lance W Kreplick, MD, FAAEM, MMM  Medical Director of Hyperbaric Medicine, Fawcett Wound Management and Hyperbaric Medicine; Consulting Staff in Occupational Health and Rehabilitation, Company Care Occupational Health Services; President and Chief Executive Officer, QED Medical Solutions, LLC

Lance W Kreplick, MD, FAAEM, MMM, is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine and American College of Physician Executives

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John T VanDeVoort, PharmD  Regional Director of Pharmacy, Sacred Heart and St Joseph's Hospitals

John T VanDeVoort, PharmD is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Fred Harchelroad, MD, FACMT, FAAEM, FACEP  Director of Medical Toxicology, Allegheny General Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John D Halamka, MD, MS  Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Chief Information Officer, CareGroup Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School; Attending Physician, Division of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

John D Halamka, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Informatics Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Asim Tarabar, MD  Assistant Professor, Director, Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Department of Emergency Medicine, Yale-New Haven Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors, Neesha Suresh Desai, MD, MPH, Gregory S Johnston, MD, Carlyn Ko, MD, and Fred Tilden, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

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Profile of single-substance NSAID exposures from 2007 American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System (AAPCC NPDS).
Age profile of single-substance exposures from 2007 American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System (AAPCC NPDS).
Table 1. Chemical Classifications of NSAIDs
NSAID Drug ClassMaximum Daily DoseHalf-LifeCommentsClinical Symptoms
Salicylates



Examples: Aspirin and other salicylates, eg, sodium or magnesium salicylate (not covered in this article), diflunisal (Dolobid) – not metabolized to salicylic acid



1500 mg8-12 hSalicylates: See Toxicity, Salicylate for discussion of acetylsalicylic acid toxicitySalicylates: See Toxicity, Salicylate



Diflunisal: This NSAID commonly causes drowsiness, vomiting, and diarrhea.



Hyperventilation, tachycardia, diaphoresis, tinnitus, disorientation, stupor, coma, cardiopulmonary arrest, and fatality are rarely observed and occur only with doses exceeding 15 g.



The lowest reported dose resulting in fatality is 15 g.



Pyrazolones



Examples: Phenylbutazone



600 mg50-100 hPyrazolones: Phenylbutazone (Butazolidin), one of the most toxic NSAIDs



Symptoms of mild poisoning include nausea, abdominal pain, and drowsiness.



Severe poisoning has multisystem effects that, early on, include the GI system (eg, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), CNS (eg, dizziness, seizures, coma), the cardiovascular system (eg, pulmonary edema, arrest), metabolic and respiratory acidosis, and electrolyte abnormalities.



Delayed severe toxicity (2-7 d) includes renal, hepatic, and hematologic dysfunction.



Although the pyrazolones have been withdrawn from the market, phenylbutazone is available from veterinary sources and from other countries (eg, it has presented in southwestern United States)



Fenamates (anthranilic acids)



Examples: Meclofenamate (Meclomen), mefenamic acid (Ponstel)



1000 mg2 hThese drugs have not been studied thoroughly, but they have caused vomiting, diarrhea, muscle twitching, and seizures. Most patients recover completely within 24 h. Myoclonus, muscle twitching, or seizures are characteristic of symptomatic overdose. Seizures may be focal or general. In one series, 20% of 54 patients who developed abnormal neuromuscular activity described as, "twitching" developed seizures (generalized, grand mal, tonic-clonic).
Acetic acids



Examples:



Diclofenac (Voltaren),



etodolac(Lodine),



indomethacin (Indocin),



ketorolac (Toradol, Sprix),



sulindac (Clinoril)



PO ketorolac daily dosage limit is 40 mg. Not to exceed daily dose of 126 mg for intranasal ketorolac (63 mg/24 h if older than 65 y). Total cumulative ketorolac (any administration route) should not exceed 5 days in a row. Typically 8-30 hSulindac is a prodrug. Peak concentrations may be delayed 2-5 h.Sulindac overdoses are very rare, but case reports have shown effects on renal function. Indomethacin poisoning can cause headache, lethargy, disorientation, seizure, nausea, vomiting, and GI bleeding. Seizures were reported in the case of a 6-year-old who ingested, "a bottle" of indomethacin.



Diclofenac can cause nausea, vomiting, tinnitus, hallucinations, and acute renal failure (3 cases).



COX-2 inhibitors



Examples: Celecoxib



400 mg -celecoxib3-11 hConsidered to be relatively safeOnly available Cox-2 inhibitor in the US
Propionic acids Examples:



Ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), naproxen (Naprosyn, Anaprox), carprofen (Rimadyl), ketoprofen (Orudis)



For ibuprofen- 3200 mg and T1/2 3 h



For naproxen-



1500 mg and T1/2 12-17 h



Severe toxicity reported mainly in children and can occur in ingestions of 400 mg/kg or more; symptoms include seizures, apnea, hypertension, and renal and hepatic dysfunction Headache, tinnitus, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain are the most common symptoms, and commonly appear within 4 h of ingestion.



In a retrospective case series of 126 patients with ibuprofen overdose, 19% of patients developed symptoms, predominantly CNS depression and GI upset, typically within 4 h. In a prospective study of 45 adults and 39 pediatric patients, all patients who became ill did so within 4 h. In this study, coma, apnea, and/or metabolic acidosis occurred in 9% of adults and 5% of children. Ingestions of more than 400 mg/kg of ibuprofen are associated with seizures, apnea, hypotension, bradycardia, metabolic acidosis, and renal and hepatic dysfunction.



Oxicams Examples:



Piroxicam (Feldene)



20 mg45-50 hOccasionally, these NSAIDs can cause dizziness, blurred vision, seizures, and coma.
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