Opioids/Benzodiazepines Poisoning Differential Diagnoses

  • Author: Christopher P Holstege, MD; Chief Editor: Robert G Darling, MD, FACEP   more...
 
Updated: Dec 20, 2010
 
 

Differential Diagnoses

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Christopher P Holstege, MD  Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, University of Virginia; Director, Division of Medical Toxicology, Center of Clinical Toxicology; Medical Director, Blue Ridge Poison Ctr, Associate Medical Toxicology Fellowship Director, VA Dept of Health

Christopher P Holstege, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Medical Toxicology, European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists, Medical Society of Virginia, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, Society of Toxicology, and Wilderness Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Jennifer S Boyle, MD, PharmD  Fellow in Toxicology, University of Virginia Health System

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Suzanne White, MD  Medical Director, Regional Poison Control Center at Children's Hospital, Program Director of Medical Toxicology, Associate Professor, Departments of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Suzanne White, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, American College of Epidemiology, American College of Medical Toxicology, American Medical Association, and Michigan State Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD  Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine

Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Rick Kulkarni, MD 

Rick Kulkarni, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Association, American Medical Informatics Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: WebMD Salary Employment

John D Halamka, MD, MS  Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Chief Information Officer, CareGroup Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School; Attending Physician, Division of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

John D Halamka, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Informatics Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Robert G Darling, MD, FACEP  Adjunct Clinical Assistant Professor of Military and Emergency Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, F Edward Hebert School of Medicine; Associate Director, Center for Disaster and Humanitarian Assistance Medicine

Robert G Darling, MD, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Association, American Telemedicine Association, and Association of Military Surgeons of the US

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

  1. Stone A. Chemical weapons. U.S. research on sedatives in combat sets off alarms. Science. Aug 2 2002;297(5582):764. [Medline].

  2. Hess L, Schreiberova J, Fusek J. Pharmacological non-lethal weapons. 3rd European Symposium on Non-Lethal Weapons. May 10-12, 2005. Available at http://www.non-lethal-weapons.com/sy03abstracts/V23.pdf. Accessed January 10, 2009.

  3. Xi LY, Zheng WM, Zhen SM, Xian NS. Rapid arrest of seizures with an inhalation aerosol containing diazepam. Epilepsia. Mar-Apr 1994;35(2):356-8. [Medline].

  4. Hung OR, Whynot SC, Varvel JR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of inhaled liposome-encapsulated fentanyl. Anesthesiology. Aug 1995;83(2):277-84. [Medline].

  5. Wax PM, Becker CE, Curry SC. Unexpected "gas" casualties in Moscow: a medical toxicology perspective. Ann Emerg Med. May 2003;41(5):700-5. [Medline].

  6. Booij LH. [The agent used to free the hostages in Moscow and the insufficient Dutch preparations in case of a terrorist chemical disaster]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. Dec 14 2002;146(50):2396-401. [Medline].

  7. Brooks M. Knockout gas: Chemical weapons in disguise?. New Scientist. October 2007;[Full Text].

  8. Coupland RM. Incapacitating chemical weapons: a year after the Moscow theatre siege. Lancet. Oct 25 2003;362(9393):1346. [Medline].

  9. Enserink M, Stone R. Toxicology. Questions swirl over knockout gas used in hostage crisis. Science. Nov 8 2002;298(5596):1150-1. [Medline].

  10. Gudmundsdottir H, Sigurjonsdottir JF, Masson M, et al. Intranasal administration of midazolam in a cyclodextrin based formulation: bioavailability and clinical evaluation in humans. Pharmazie. Dec 2001;56(12):963-6. [Medline].

  11. Ljungman G, Kreuger A, Andreasson S, et al. Midazolam nasal spray reduces procedural anxiety in children. Pediatrics. Jan 2000;105(1 Pt 1):73-8. [Medline].

  12. Loftsson T, Gudmundsdottir H, Sigurjonsdottir JF, et al. Cyclodextrin solubilization of benzodiazepines: formulation of midazolam nasal spray. Int J Pharm. Jan 5 2001;212(1):29-40. [Medline].

  13. Mather LE, Woodhouse A, Ward ME. Pulmonary administration of aerosolised fentanyl: pharmacokinetic analysis of systemic delivery. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Jul 1998;46(1):37-43. [Medline].

  14. Rieder J, Keller C, Hoffmann G. Moscow theatre siege and anaesthetic drugs. Lancet. Mar 29 2003;361(9363):1131. [Medline].

  15. Schiermeier Q. Hostage deaths put gas weapons in spotlight. Nature. Nov 7 2002;420(6911):7. [Medline].

  16. Weinberger S. Czech Research Stirs Chemical Weapons Debate. October 17, 2007. Wired. Available at http://blog.wired.com/defense/2007/10/czech-research-.html. Accessed January 10, 2009.

  17. Worsley MH, MacLeod AD, Brodie MJ, et al. Inhaled fentanyl as a method of analgesia. Anaesthesia. Jun 1990;45(6):449-51. [Medline].

 
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