eMedicine Specialties > Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery > Middle Ear & Mastoid

Middle Ear, Chronic Suppurative Otitis, Medical Treatment

David Parry, MD, Staff Physician, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, ENT Associates of Children's Hospital, Boston
Peter S Roland, MD, Professor, Department of Neurological Surgery, Professor and Chairman, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Director of Clinical Center for Auditory, Vestibular and Facial Nerve Disorders, Chief of Pediatric Otology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; Adjunct Professor of Communicative Disorders, University of Texas School of Human Development

Updated: Jul 7, 2009

Introduction

Background

Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is a disease well known to otolaryngologists. This disease differs from chronic serous otitis media. Chronic serous otitis media may be defined as a middle ear effusion, without perforation, which is reported to persist more than 1-3 months, depending on the author. CSOM is a perforated tympanic membrane with persistent drainage from the middle ear. The chronically draining ear can be difficult to treat for a variety of reasons. This article presents the pathophysiology of the disease, treatment alternatives, and complications.¹

The ancient Egyptians recognized CSOM as a disease of the ear and treated it with fluids of duck grease, borax, and cow milk. Traditional healers in India recommended both medicinal and behavioral treatments. They advised drinking butter, maintaining silence, and avoiding fatigue to cure CSOM. Hippocrates understood the recurrent nature of CSOM and placed patients on different medical and behavioral therapies, depending on the time course of their suppuration. Initially, he prescribed hot water, human milk, and sweet wine, along with avoiding the sun, strong wind, and smoky rooms. For recurrent cases, he added a topical powder consisting of lead oxide and lead carbonate.

CSOM is defined as chronic otorrhea (ie, >6-12 wk) through a perforated tympanic membrane (TM).^2,3 Chronic suppuration can occur with or without cholesteatoma, and the clinical history of both conditions can be very similar. The treatment plan for cholesteatoma always includes tympanomastoid surgery with medical treatment as an adjunct. Cholesteatoma and its management are not considered in this article.

Pathophysiology

CSOM is initiated by an episode of acute infection. The pathophysiology of CSOM begins with irritation and subsequent inflammation of the middle ear mucosa. The inflammatory response creates mucosal edema. Ongoing inflammation eventually leads to mucosal ulceration and consequent breakdown of the epithelial lining. The host's attempt at resolving the infection or inflammatory insult manifests as granulation tissue, which can develop into polyps within the middle ear space. The cycle of inflammation, ulceration, infection, and granulation tissue formation may continue, destroying surrounding bony margins and ultimately leading to the various complications of CSOM.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus species, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and diphtheroids are the most common bacteria cultured from chronically draining ears. Anaerobes and fungi may grow concurrently with the aerobes in a symbiotic relationship. The clinical significance of this relationship, although unproven, is theorized to be an increased virulence of the infection. Understanding the microbiology of this disease enables the clinician to create a treatment plan with the greatest efficacy and least morbidity.

Microbiology

P aeruginosa is the most commonly recovered organism from the chronically draining ear. Various researchers over the past few decades have recovered pseudomonads from 48-98% of patients with CSOM.

P aeruginosa uses pili to attach to necrotic or diseased epithelium of the middle ear. Once attached, the organism produces proteases, lipopolysaccharide, and other enzymes to prevent normal immunologic defense mechanisms from fighting the infection. The ensuing damage from bacterial and inflammatory enzymes creates further damage, necrosis, and, eventually, bony erosion leading to some of the complications of CSOM. Fortunately, in the immunocompetent individual, the infection rarely causes serious complications or disseminated disease. Pseudomonal infections commonly resist macrolides, extended-spectrum penicillins, and first- and second-generation cephalosporins. This can complicate treatment plans, especially in children.

S aureus is the second most common organism isolated from chronically diseased middle ears. Reported data estimate infection rates from 15-30% of culture positive draining ears. The remainder of infections is caused by a large variety of gram-negative organisms. Klebsiella (10-21%) and Proteus (10-15%) species are slightly more common than other gram-negative organisms.

Five to 10% of infections are polymicrobial in etiology, often demonstrating a combination of gram-negative organisms and S aureus. The anaerobes (Bacteroides, Peptostreptococcus, Peptococcus) and fungi (Aspergillus, Candida) complete the spectrum of colonizing organisms in this disease. The anaerobes make up 20-50% of the isolates in CSOM and tend to be associated with cholesteatoma. Fungi have been reported in up to 25% of cases, but their pathogenic contribution to this disease is unclear.

Frequency

United States

The larger the TM perforation, the more likely the patient is to develop CSOM. The risk of developing otorrhea (but not necessarily CSOM) through a ventilation tube is reportedly 21-50%. Annually, more than a million tubes are placed to treat recurrent otitis media and otitis media with effusion. Studies report that 1-3% of patients with ventilation tubes develop CSOM.

Some studies estimate the yearly incidence of CSOM to be 39 cases per 100,000 persons in children and adolescents aged 15 years and younger.

International

In Britain, 0.9% of children and 0.5% of adults have CSOM. In Israel, only 0.039% of children are affected.

Mortality/Morbidity

Much of the morbidity of CSOM comes from the associated conductive hearing loss and the social stigma of an often fetid fluid draining from the affected ear. The mortality of CSOM arises from associated intracranial complications. CSOM itself is not a fatal disease. Although some studies report sensorineural hearing loss as a morbid complication of CSOM, other evidence conflicts with this claim.

Race

Certain population subsets are at increased risk for developing CSOM. The American Indian and Eskimo demonstrate an increased risk of infection. Eight percent of American Indians and up to 12% of Eskimos are affected by CSOM. The anatomy and function of the eustachian tube play a significant role in this increased risk. The eustachian tube is wider and more open in these populations than in others, thus placing them at increased risk for nasal reflux of bacteria common to AOM and recurrent AOM and leading to more frequent development of CSOM. Other populations at increased risk include children from Guam, Hong Kong, South Africa, and the Solomon Islands.

Sex

Prevalence of CSOM appears to be distributed equally between males and females.

Age

Exact prevalence in different age groups is unknown, though some studies estimate the yearly incidence of CSOM to be 39 cases per 100,000 individuals in children and adolescents aged 15 years and younger.⁴

Clinical

History

Patients with CSOM present with a draining ear of some duration and a premorbid history of recurrent AOM, traumatic perforation, or placement of ventilation tubes. Typically, they deny pain or discomfort.

• A common presenting symptom is hearing loss in the affected ear.
• Reports of fever, vertigo, and pain should raise concern about intratemporal or intracranial complications.
• A history of persistent CSOM after appropriate medical treatment should alert the physician to consider cholesteatoma.

Physical

• The external auditory canal may or may not be edematous and is typically not tender.
• The discharge varies from fetid, purulent, and cheeselike to clear and serous.
• Granulation tissue is often seen in the medial canal or middle ear space.
• The middle ear mucosa visualized through the perforation may be edematous or even polypoid, pale, or erythematous.

Causes

The diagnosis of CSOM requires a perforated TM. These perforations may arise traumatically, iatrogenically with tube placement, or after an episode of AOM, which decompresses through a tympanic perforation.¹

The mechanism of infection of the middle ear cleft is postulated to be translocation of bacteria from the external auditory canal through a perforation into the middle ear. Some authors suggest that the pathogenic organisms may enter through reflux of the eustachian tube. The data supporting this theory are inconclusive. Most of the pathogenic bacteria are those common to the external auditory canal.

The risk of developing otorrhea (but not necessarily CSOM) through a ventilation tube is reportedly 21-50%. Annually, more than a million tubes are placed in the United States for recurrent otitis media and otitis media with effusion. Studies have reported that 1-3% of patients with ventilation tubes develop this disease.

The risk of developing CSOM increases with the following circumstances⁴ :

• A history of multiple episodes of AOM
• Living in crowded conditions
• Daycare facility attendance
• Being a member of a large family

Studies trying to correlate the frequency of the disease with parental education, passive smoke, breastfeeding, socioeconomic status, and the annual number of upper respiratory tract infections are inconclusive.

Patients with craniofacial anomalies are special populations at risk for CSOM. Cleft palate, Down syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, choanal atresia, cleft lip, and microcephaly are other diagnoses that increase the risk of CSOM, presumably from altered eustachian tube anatomy and function.

Differential Diagnoses

Wegener Granulomatosis

Other Problems to Be Considered

Langerhans cell histiocytosis
Neoplasia
Foreign body
Cholesteatoma
Sigmoid sinus thrombosis
Brain abscess
Otitic hydrocephalus
Extradural abscess
Meningitis
Tuberculosis
Petrositis
Labyrinthitis

Workup

Laboratory Studies

• Reasonable chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) treatment plans can be developed without lab studies.
• Prior to instituting systemic therapy, a culture should be obtained for sensitivity. Sensitivity testing is important when systemic therapy is being considered.

Imaging Studies

• CT scanning
  • If CSOM is unresponsive to medical treatment, a fine-cut CT scan of the temporal bone may provide an explanation. Possible reasons for failed treatment include occult cholesteatoma or foreign body.
  • CT scanning is a necessary adjunct to treatment if the clinician suspects a neoplasm or if the clinician anticipates intratemporal or intracranial complications.
  • A fine-cut CT scan can reveal bone erosion from cholesteatoma, ossicular erosion, involvement of petrous apex, coalescent mastoiditis, erosion of the fallopian canal, and subperiosteal abscess.
• MRI
  • Use MRI of the temporal bone and brain if intratemporal or intracranial complications are suspected.
  • By clearly depicting soft tissues, MRI can reveal dural inflammation, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, labyrinthitis, and extradural and intracranial abscesses.

Other Tests

An audiogram should be performed. Conductive hearing loss is expected, but mixed hearing loss may indicate more extensive disease and should alert the treating physician of impending complications.

Treatment

Medical Care

Antibiotic drops

The antibiotic should have an appropriate spectrum of activity that includes gram-negative organisms, especially pseudomonads, and gram-positive organisms, especially S aureus. The antibiotics that meet this initial criterion are the aminoglycosides and the fluoroquinolones. Topical antibiotic drops containing aminoglycosides have been marketed and used for more than 20 years.

Most drops marketed specifically for otologic use contain neomycin combined with a cationic detergent (polymyxin B). Neomycin has remained fairly effective over the last 2 decades for gram-positive organisms but has lost almost all of its effectiveness for gram-negative organisms. Dohar's recent studies indicate fewer than 20% of gram-negative organisms remain sensitive to neomycin; however, polymyxin B has remained effective for gram-negative bacteria. The combination consequently remains reasonably effective from an antimicrobial point of view.

Gentamicin- and tobramycin-containing ophthalmic drops have been widely used off-label for the treatment of otologic infections. A fixed-ration combination of tobramycin and dexamethasone (TobraDex) has been especially popular within the United States, while gentamicin-containing drops have been more popular in Canada and Europe.

All aminoglycosides have significant potential toxicity. Some are more vestibular toxic than cochlear toxic and, therefore, are more likely to produce vestibular dysfunction than hearing loss. For other aminoglycosides, the opposite is true. Studies designed to detect hearing loss from use of ototopical aminoglycosides demonstrate that such incidence is, at worst, low. Recent information, however, suggests that the potential for vestibular toxicity may be much higher, especially if preparations containing gentamicin are used.

Otic drops differ in pH. Drops designed for otic use are often buffered slightly to an acidic pH because the normal environment of the external auditory canal is acidic. Such drops can be extremely painful if they penetrate into the middle ear, especially if the middle ear mucosa is normal. The normal pH of the middle ear is neutral.

Most ototopic antibiotic steroid combinations are at least somewhat acidic because it is almost impossible to keep either quinolones or aminoglycosides in solution at a neutral or basic pH. The acidity of polymyxin, neomycin, and hydrocortisone varies from as low as 3.5 to 4.5. Ciprofloxacin and hydrocortisone combinations have a pH of 4.5-5.0, as do tobramycin and dexamethasone combinations.

While low pH is an advantage when treating infections in the external auditory canal, the advantage is lost in the middle ear. Within the middle ear space, the potential for low pH solutions to cause pain or to irritate mucosa can render them disadvantageous.

Ototopical preparations vary in viscosity. Preparations containing an antibiotic are usually solutions and have relatively low viscosities approaching that of water (1.0 cP). Preparations containing a steroid are often of considerably higher viscosity, ranging from 2-8 cP. Polyviscous solutions may effectively coat and remain in contact with tissues for longer periods, although they are less likely to move through or around small spaces (eg, tympanostomy tubes, granulation tissue, polyps) than are preparations of lower viscosity.

Some controversy surrounds the development of bacterial resistance due to ototopical treatment. Recent studies have not identified any increase in bacterial resistance through ototopical antibiotic administration. Specifically, the concentration in quinolone ototopical drops overwhelms the most resistant pseudomonal and staphylococcal strains. Failure of topical antibiotic delivery to the pathogenic organisms should be considered a cause of persistent infections.

Roland et al demonstrated that the anti-inflammatory effect of steroids is an important advantage when significant amounts of granulation tissue are present. Ototopicals with steroids were superior to steroid-free ototopicals in reducing granulation tissue at days 11 and 18 of treatment. The steroid-containing drops should be considered in chronic suppurative otitis media with granulation tissue.

Aural toilet

Aural toilet is a critical process in the treatment of CSOM. The external auditory canal and tissues lateral to the infected middle ear are often covered with mucoid exudate or desquamated epithelium. Topically applied preparations cannot penetrate affected tissues until these interposing materials are removed.

Traditionally, in otolaryngology, aural toilet has been achieved using the microscope and microinstruments to mechanically remove such materials. For best results, aural toilet should be performed 2-3 times per day just before the administration of topical antimicrobial agents.

Aural irrigation is an effective alternative that is often less burdensome for patients and physicians. A solution of 50% peroxide and 50% sterile water is generally painless and effective. Thirty to 40 mL of this solution can be irrigated through the external auditory canal, using a small syringe or bulb-type aspirator. The irrigant solution can be allowed to drain out for 5-10 minutes prior to instilling the ototopical antimicrobial.

Granulation tissue

Granulation tissue often fills the middle ear and medial portions of the external auditory canal. Granulation tissue can prevent topically applied antimicrobial agents from penetrating to the site of infection. The use of topical antimicrobial drops is the first step in controlling granulation.

These drops help reduce granulation tissue by eliminating infection and by removing the inciting irritating inflammation. As previously discussed, most physicians believe that topical steroids are important and hasten the resolution of middle ear granulation, thus improving penetration of topically delivered antimicrobial agents.

Cautery is often used to reduce the amount of granulation tissue and to control its formation. Microbipolar cautery can be used in the office, but chemical cautery is used more commonly. Silver nitrate can conveniently be applied in the form of silver nitrate sticks. Caution must be exercised, as the depth of the chemical burn induced by the application of chemical agents, including silver nitrate, is uncontrolled. Excision of granulation tissue can be accomplished in the office with the use of a microscope and microinstruments. Silver nitrate is often used to control bleeding and to enhance the efficacy of granulation tissue removal.

An important part (perhaps the most important part) of tympanomastoidectomy for the treatment of CSOM consists of removing and controlling granulation tissue within the middle ear, mastoid, and mastoid antrum.

Treatment failures

Failures of topical antimicrobial therapy are almost always failures of delivery. Specifically, failure of delivery describes the inability of an appropriate, topical antibiotic to reach the specific site of infection within the middle ear. Various elements may obstruct the delivery of the medication including infectious debris, granulation tissue, cholesteatoma, neoplasia, cerumen, and others. When topical therapy fails, the patient needs a thorough evaluation for anatomic obstruction including microscopic examination and radiologic studies as needed. Additionally, a clear understanding of the very high concentration of the antibiotic within topical preparations must be kept in mind.

The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for S aureus, S pneumoniae, and the other organisms that commonly cause CSOM are generally 1-2 mcg/mL. Generally, intravenously administered aminoglycosides and any pseudomonal cephalosporins can slightly exceed these levels.

Orally administered fluoroquinolones also slightly exceed the MICs of most of the relevant organisms. (Oral administration achieves blood levels as high as those achieved with parenteral administration.) Concentrations of medicines in the middle ear fluid rarely exceed 4-6 mcg/mL. In contrast, a 0.3% topical antibiotic solution contains 3000 mcg/mL, a concentration 100-1000 times that which can be achieved using systemic administration. Moreover, this concentration greatly exceeds the MIC for any relevant organism. These high concentrations have the following important implications:

• Topical therapy does not fail because the organism is resistant. Even supposedly resistant organisms succumb to these very high concentrations. For instance, even an extraordinarily resistant strain of S aureus with an MIC of 256 mcg/mL cannot survive in an environment in which the concentration of antibiotic is 3000 mcg/mL.
• The emergence of resistance to topical therapy is extremely uncommon. The rapid kill rates and high concentrations of topically administrated drops do not permit even mutant strains with higher MICs to survive.
• Sensitivity reports from the clinical laboratory are irrelevant. Sensitivity testing in the clinical laboratory is designed for the tissue concentrations achievable by systemic administration. Consequently, a pseudomonad with an MIC of 48 mcg/mL is likely to be reported as resistant by the clinical laboratory.

Consequently, when topical therapy for CSOM fails, it is almost never because of an antimicrobial resistance of the organisms involved. Therefore, culture and sensitivity are of little benefit as long as therapy is topical.

Because of the high concentrations of antimicrobial agents, topical therapy is more likely to be effective than systemic therapy. Studies comparing systemic administration to topical administration show that topical cure rates nearly double systemic rates.

Systemic therapy

Systemic therapy should be reserved for cases of CSOM that fail to respond to topical therapy. Topical therapy presumably fails because antibiotics cannot reach infected tissues. Systemic therapy is expected to succeed in penetration of the tissues.

If a focus of infection in the mastoid cannot be reached by topical drops, there is a reasonable chance that systemically administered antibiotics can penetrate into these areas in sufficient concentrations to control or eliminate infection, though concentrations are lower. Ototopical therapy is generally continued once systemic therapy is begun. Indeed, since systemic therapy frequently involves hospitalization for intravenous administration of drugs, aural toilet can frequently be intensified. The ability to perform reliable aural toilet may be as important as the systemic antimicrobial therapy in eliminating the disease for some patients.

Prior to instituting systemic therapy, a culture should be obtained for sensitivity. Sensitivity testing is important when systemic therapy is being considered. The antibiotics should be selected on the basis of the resulting sensitivity profile. The narrowest spectrum antibiotic with the fewest adverse effects and complications should be used.

All the aminoglycosides are potentially useful, although tobramycin has been shown to be more effective against pseudomonads than gentamicin. Dohar et al have shown that piperacillin is probably the most effective antibiotic. Ceftazidime remains a useful choice for many patients.

Systemic therapy should be continued for 3-4 weeks. Most individuals experience cessation of otorrhea in shorter periods. Antimicrobial therapy should probably be continued at least 3-4 days after cessation of otorrhea.

Potentially, the fluoroquinolones are the most useful class of oral antibiotics for treating CSOM. Oral therapy achieves serum concentrations as high as parenteral therapy, obviating the need for intravenous delivery.

Ciprofloxacin remains the most effective of the quinolones for pseudomonads. Some of the late-generation "respiratory quinolones" appear to be more efficacious for S aureus. Fluoroquinolones are not approved for use in children because they elicit joint injury in juvenile experimental animals. Nevertheless, a large database of children with cystic fibrosis who have been treated with systemic fluoroquinolones at relatively high doses for prolonged periods demonstrates that the risk of joint injury appears to be absent or very low. No cases of permanent joint injury have been reported.

A few children of the many thousands treated have developed pain that remitted with cessation of therapy. Given the real potential toxicity of intravenously administered antibiotics—especially the aminoglycosides—serious consideration should be given to the use of oral fluoroquinolones when treating children with CSOM unresponsive to topical therapy. The risk of injury, adverse reaction, or significant adverse effects appears to be lower overall with systemic quinolones than with many of the other antibiotics normally used to treat gram-negative infections. Most parents are agreeable to the off-label use of oral fluoroquinolones if they understand the relative risks and potential benefits offered by this class of drugs in comparison to the variable alternatives.

Surgery should be considered if CSOM fails to respond to a combination of topical and systemic therapy. A tympanomastoidectomy can eliminate infection and stop otorrhea in 80% of patients.

Surgical Care

Patients with CSOM that is unresponsive to topical and/or systemic medical therapy with appropriate aural toilet and control of granulation tissue require surgery. Please see Middle Ear, Chronic Suppurative Otitis, Surgical Treatment.

Consultations

Neurosurgeons should be consulted as indicated in Complications.

Activity

Swimming is contraindicated during treatment for CSOM.

Medication

An expert panel of the American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery recently convened to provide guidelines for the use of antibiotics in CSOM. The panel concluded that topical antibiotics alone constitute first-line treatment for most patients, barring systemic infection. If systemic infection is present, oral or, if necessary, parenteral antibiotics are warranted.

Please see Medical Care for a complete discussion of alternatives.

Antibiotics

Topical and systemic antibiotics are used in the treatment of chronic suppurative otitis media. Fluoroquinolone otic preparations, with or without a corticosteroid, are excellent options for topical treatment. Aminoglycoside otics may also be used, but monitoring of vestibular or cochlear toxicity is necessary. Representative examples of each class are listed below.

Ciprofloxacin (Cipro HC Otic suspension), Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone combination (Ciprodex)

Ototopical fluoroquinolone containing hydrocortisone. This class of antimicrobial has a broad spectrum of activity. Additionally, fluoroquinolones do not cause vestibular or cochlear toxicity recognized with aminoglycosides.

Dosing

Adult

5-10 gtt instilled in affected ear bid

Pediatric

<1 year: Not established
>1 year: Administer as in adults

Interactions

None with otic instillation

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Headache and pruritus rarely reported

Tobramycin (Tobrex, TobraDex)

Ototopical aminoglycoside with or without corticosteroid. Has a long, successful history in the treatment of chronic suppurative otitis media and is widely used today. Risk of vestibular or cochlear toxicity with prolonged use or use on the noninflamed middle ear exists; consider this when choosing to treat chronic suppurative otitis media with this class of medication.

Dosing

Adult

5-10 gtt instilled in affected ear bid

Pediatric

Administer as in adults

Interactions

None with otic instillation

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Monitor for auditory or vestibular toxicity

Piperacillin (Pipracil)

Inhibits biosynthesis of cell wall mucopeptides and stage of active multiplication. Has antipseudomonal activity.

Dosing

Adult

2-3 g IV/IM q6-12h; not to exceed 2 g with IM injection
Serious infections: 3-4 g IV/IM q4-6h; not to exceed 24 g/d

Pediatric

200-300 mg/kg/d IV divided q4-6h; not to exceed 24 g/d

Interactions

Tetracyclines may decrease effects; at high concentrations may physically inactivate aminoglycosides; probenecid may increase levels; coadministration with aminoglycosides has synergistic effects

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Caution in renal impairment and in history of seizures

Ceftazidime (Fortaz, Ceptaz, Tazidime, Tazicef)

Studies show this to be an effective IV antibiotic for systemic treatment of chronic suppurative otitis media. Penetrates the middle ear mucosa effectively and does not cause vestibular or cochlear toxicity.

Dosing

Adult

1-2 g IV q8-12h

Pediatric

30-50 mg/kg/dose IV q8h; not to exceed 6 g/d

Interactions

Nephrotoxicity may increase with aminoglycosides, furosemide, and ethacrynic acid; probenecid may increase levels

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in severe renal insufficiency (high doses may cause CNS toxicity); superinfections and promotion of nonsusceptible organisms may occur with prolonged use or repeated therapy

Follow-up

Further Inpatient Care

Inpatient care is rarely necessary for the patient with CSOM. In patients for whom the otolaryngologist chooses systemic parenteral antibiotics, inpatient hospitalization may be required. Otherwise, excluding complications, this disease can be treated effectively in the outpatient setting.

Inpatient & Outpatient Medications

• Ototopical fluoroquinolone with or without steroid (eg, Floxin, Cipro HC, Ciprodex)
  • This should be considered as an initial choice for topical antibiotic because of its broad spectrum and low adverse effect profile with minimal toxicity.
  • Fluoroquinolones are not ototoxic and are very effective in the eradication of CSOM.
• Ototopical aminoglycoside with steroid (eg, Cortisporin, Otobiotic)
  • These antibiotic preparations also have excellent broad-spectrum coverage with minimal adverse reactions.
  • Prolonged use carries no known risk of ototoxicity. These preparations have demonstrated ototoxicity in animal studies of normal middle ears.
• Ototopical acetic acid or alcohol preparations (eg, Domeboro, Swim-Ear, VoSoL Otic)

Transfer

• Patients who present with suspected intracranial complications to hospitals that function without CT scanning capabilities or neurosurgical care should be transferred as soon as possible to an institution with such capabilities. Antibiotic therapy should be started prior to transfer.

Deterrence/Prevention

• The following measures help prevent recurrence and allow for early intervention in patients with recurrent infections:
  • Patients should be advised to keep their ears dry to prevent future complications, even after medical treatment results in a safe and dry ear. Swimming is not contraindicated if patients dry their ears afterward.
  • Tympanoplasty, a surgery that seals the perforation, prevents the translocation of bacteria from the external ear canal into the middle ear. The uninflamed, protected middle ear mucosa deters future development of chronic suppurative otitis media.
  • Early symptoms of aural fullness, otalgia with or without fever, and headache warrant evaluation by an otolaryngologist in patients with a recent history of CSOM.

Complications

• CSOM without prompt proper treatment can progress into a variety of mild to life-threatening complications that can be separated into 2 subgroups: intratemporal and intracranial.⁵ Intratemporal complications include petrositis, facial paralysis, and labyrinthitis. Intracranial complications include lateral sinus thrombophlebitis, meningitis, and intracranial abscess. Sequelae include hearing loss, acquired cholesteatoma, and tympanosclerosis.
  • Petrositis occurs when the infection extends beyond the confines of the middle ear and mastoid into the petrous apex. Patients may present with Gradenigo syndrome, ie, retro-orbital pain, aural discharge, and abducens palsy. A CT scan of the head and temporal bone helps define the extent of the disease, diagnose any intracranial spread, and plan a surgical approach. Treatment includes systemic antibiotics with petrosectomy.
  • Facial paralysis can be observed in CSOM with or without cholesteatoma. Surgical exploration with removal of diseased mucosa, granulation tissue, and inspissated pus (usually by mastoidectomy) should be undertaken promptly.
  • Labyrinthitis occurs when the infection spreads to the inner ear. This may happen emergently or over an extended period. The infection gains access to the inner ear through the round and oval windows or through one of the semicircular canals exposed by bony erosion. The 4 categories of labyrinthitis have been recognized as (1) acute serous, (2) acute suppurative, (3) chronic, and (4) labyrinthine sclerosis.
    • Symptoms of acute serous labyrinthitis are acute onset of vertigo and hearing loss. Early surgical exploration to remove the infection mitigates damage to the labyrinth.
    • Patients with acute suppurative labyrinthitis present with profound hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo with associated nausea and vomiting. Patients initially demonstrate nystagmus with the rapid component directed toward the affected ear; they later demonstrate nystagmus after destruction of the membranous labyrinth, away from the affected ear. Treatment includes aggressive surgical debridement of the disease (including labyrinthectomy) to prevent the possibly lethal intracranial complications of meningitis or encephalitis. Administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics with cerebrospinal fluid penetration is also necessary. Culture and sensitivities should direct any changes in the antibiotic regimen.
    • Chronic labyrinthitis is characterized by gradual onset of vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss. Most commonly, the infection reaches the labyrinth through the lateral canal. Treatment involves mastoidectomy, culture, and appropriate medical therapy.
    • Labyrinthine sclerosis occurs as the inflammation in the labyrinth causes the body to replace it with fibrous tissue and new bone.
  • Lateral sinus thrombophlebitis occurs as the infection extends through the mastoid bone into the sigmoid or lateral sinus. The infected thrombus may release septic embolic causing distal infarcts. Patients present with altered mental status, possible seizures, and fever. Mastoidectomy with surgical excision of the thrombus and culture-directed antimicrobial treatment represent the first steps in its management.
  • Meningitis develops as a consequence of direct or hematogenous spread of the infection. If suspected, perform lumbar puncture to recover the causative organism for culture and sensitivity prior to the initiation of empiric broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy. When stable, patients are taken to the operating room for surgical removal of the cholesteatoma or middle ear infection. Rarely, patients with CSOM develop intracranial abscesses.
  • The various intracranial abscesses may be extradural, subdural, or parenchymal.
    • A patient with an extradural abscess may present with meningitic signs and symptoms or may be asymptomatic. Regardless of presentation, imaging to define the abscess should be acquired, and the abscess should be drained with the assistance of neurosurgeons as needed.
    • Patients with subdural abscesses are very ill with meningeal signs, possible seizures, and hemiplegia. Prompt neurosurgical consultation, adequate imaging, drainage, and antibiotics are appropriate treatment. Otologic surgery to remove the nidus of infection is necessary once the patient has stabilized.
    • Parenchymal abscesses occur as the infection spreads through the tegmen tympani or tegmen mastoideum to the temporal lobe or the cerebellum. Their presentation may be indolent, as this disease initially grows in "silent" areas of the brain. However, if the clinician suspects intracranial involvement, the previous plan of imaging, neurosurgical drainage, and antibiotic therapy is the standard of care.
• Conductive hearing loss as a consequence of CSOM may result from the perforated TM, a disruption in the ossicular chain, or both. Surgical removal of the infection and cholesteatoma with ossicular chain reconstruction mitigates morbidity associated with decreased hearing.

Prognosis

Patients with CSOM have a good prognosis with respect to control of infection. The recovery of associated hearing loss varies, depending on the cause. Conductive hearing loss can often be partially corrected with surgery. The goal of treatment is to provide the patient a safe ear.

Miscellaneous

Medicolegal Pitfalls

• Possible medicolegal pitfalls occur with hearing loss and CSOM.
  • Although studies suggest only a slight risk of sensorineural hearing loss in humans from short courses of topical aminoglycosides, the risk of vestibular toxicity appears to be much higher.
  • The introduction of fluoroquinolones, which have no potential for ototoxicity, relegates aminoglycosides to a secondary treatment alternative in most areas. Patients who receive aminoglycoside drops when fluoroquinolone drops are available and subsequently develop sensorineural hearing loss or balance disturbance may blame their physician.

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References

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Keywords

chronic otitis media, chronic perforated tympanic membrane, perforated tympanic membrane, chronically draining ear, chronic suppurative otitis media, CSOM, ear infection, chronic otorrhea, cholesteatoma, acute otitis media, AOM, middle ear drainage

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

David Parry, MD, Staff Physician, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, ENT Associates of Children's Hospital, Boston
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Peter S Roland, MD, Professor, Department of Neurological Surgery, Professor and Chairman, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Director of Clinical Center for Auditory, Vestibular and Facial Nerve Disorders, Chief of Pediatric Otology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; Adjunct Professor of Communicative Disorders, University of Texas School of Human Development
Peter S Roland, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Otolaryngic Allergy, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Auditory Society, American Laryngological Rhinological and Otological Society, American Neurotology Society, American Otological Society, North American Skull Base Society, and Society of University Otolaryngologists-Head and Neck Surgeons
Disclosure: Alcon labs Honoraria Speaking and teaching; GSK Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Advanced Bionics Honoraria Board membership; Cochlear corp Honoraria Board membership; Med El corp travel grants Consulting

Medical Editor

John C Li, MD, Private Practice in Otology and Neurotology; Medical Director, Balance Center
John C Li, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Neurotology Society, American Tinnitus Association, Florida Medical Association, and North American Skull Base Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Managing Editor

Gregory C Allen, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Gregory C Allen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Cleft Palate/Craniofacial Association, American College of Surgeons, American Laryngological Rhinological and Otological Society, American Medical Association, Christian Medical & Dental Society, and Colorado Medical Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Christopher L Slack, MD, Otolaryngology-Facial Plastic Surgery, Private Practice, Associated Coastal ENT; Medical Director, Treasure Coast Sleep Disorders
Christopher L Slack, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, and American Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Arlen D Meyers, MD, MBA, Professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Arlen D Meyers, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, and American Head and Neck Society
Disclosure: Covidien Corp Consulting fee Consulting; US Tobacco Corporation unstricted gift unknown; Axis Three Corporation Ownership interest Consulting; Omni Biosciences Ownership interest Consulting; Sentegra Ownership interest Board membership; Syndicom Ownership interest Consulting; Oxlo  Consulting; Medvoy Ownership interest Management position

Clinical guidelines

Evidence based clinical practice guideline for medical management of acute otitis media in children 2 months to 13 years of age.
Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center - Hospital/Medical Center.  1999 (revised 2004 Oct 29; reviewed 2006 Aug).  16 pages.  NGC:003958

Otitis media.
University of Michigan Health System - Academic Institution.  1997 Nov (revised 2007 Jul).  12 pages.  NGC:006032

Adapting your practice: treatment and recommendations for homeless children with otitis media.
Health Care for the Homeless (HCH) Clinician's Network - Medical Specialty Society
National Health Care for the Homeless Council, Inc. - Private Nonprofit Organization.  2003 (revised 2008).  29 pages.  NGC:006943

Clinical trials

Magnetic Resonance (MR) Imaging in the Post Operative Follow-up of Cholesteatoma in Children

Study of Different Kinds of Ear Tubes


Related eMedicine topics

Otitis Media

Middle Ear, Acute Otitis Media, Surgical Treatment

Middle Ear, Otitis Media With Effusion

Middle Ear, Chronic Suppurative Otitis, Surgical Treatment

Middle Ear, Acute Otitis Media, Medical Treatment

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