eMedicine Specialties > Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine > Cardiology

Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular

Author: Poothirikovil Venugopalan, MBBS, MD, FRCP (Glasg), FRCPCH, Consulting Staff, Department of Child Health, University Hospital of Hartlepool, UK
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Jul 25, 2008

Introduction

Background

First described by Elliotson, infundibular pulmonary stenosis (IPS) refers to obstruction of outflow from the right ventricle (RV) within the body of the RV, as opposed to obstruction at the pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery (PA), or its branches. IPS often occurs in association with other intracardiac anomalies; isolated IPS is rare. In this article, IPS refers to isolated infundibular pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum.

Pathophysiology

IPS has 2 forms. In the more common type, stenosis of the proximal portion of the infundibulum is due to a fibrous or muscle band at the junction of the main cavity of the RV and the infundibulum. The band divides the cavity into 2 chambers. The second type is associated with a thickened muscular infundibulum that forms a narrow outlet to the RV. The infundibulum appears shrunken. In this second type, the narrowed area may be short or long and may be located immediately below the pulmonary valve or lower into the outflow tract.

IPS is often associated with a ventricular septal defect (VSD). Common opinion holds that the VSD closes, leaving behind an isolated IPS. Whether some children have excessive muscle without ever having had a VSD is not known.

The hemodynamic consequence of the obstruction is elevated pressure within the RV cavity. The degree of elevation depends on the severity of obstruction. When severe, the resulting RV systolic pressure may exceed that of the left ventricle (LV). This high pressure is limited to the portion proximal to the infundibulum. Lower or even normal pressures are present beyond the obstruction site. Reactive RV hypertrophy follows.

Subsequent elevation of end-diastolic pressure and decreased compliance of the RV, consequent to the hypertrophy, lead to elevated right atrial (RA) pressure and dilatation of that chamber. Greater RA pressures are required to fill the ventricle, and relative right and left atrial pressures may be reversed, favoring persistent patency of the foramen ovale and right-to-left shunting. This gives rise to central cyanosis. Such reversal and cyanosis can occur when the RV is hypoplastic, even with less severe PS.

In neonates with severe PS, the pulmonary blood flow depends on the patency of the ductus arteriosus. The RV becomes hypertrophic and maintains cardiac output to a very advanced stage. With exercise, the requirement for cardiac output increases, and RV pressure proportionately rises until it exceeds the capacity of the RV muscle.

Deformity and malfunctioning of the LV occur in proportion to RV hypertension and can be demonstrated using sophisticated techniques. These LV problems have little practical consequence because they improve with relief of the RV hypertension.

Reduced LV end-diastolic compliance has been chiefly ascribed to displacement of the interventricular septum (IVS) into the LV cavity. The mechanisms responsible for systolic dysfunction are less clear.

Patients with isolated valvular PS may have a reactive infundibular hypertrophy that could elicit a reactive infundibular obstruction. This obstruction might persist for a variable period following relief of the valvar obstruction.

IPS can cause anatomic and, possibly, functional changes in the developing pulmonary vascular bed. Experimental construction of the pulmonary trunk in fetal lambs is accompanied by relatively thin-walled PA resistance vessels. Some researchers postulate this decreased medial muscular layer is caused by a higher oxygen tension of the blood perfusing the fetal pulmonary circulation.

IPS has been noted to develop in a fetus following twin-to-twin transfusion, and authors have, in that case, postulated that the elevated blood volume/pressure may be a factor in the pathogenesis.1 Inversin, the product of the inv locus, may have a specific role in cardiac morphogenesis (especially in the development of IPS) in addition to its contribution to situs determination.

Frequency

United States

The relative frequency of IPS among all obstructive lesions of the RV outflow tract is 2-10%.

International

No reliable figures have been reported.

Mortality/Morbidity

Severe IPS that leads to atresia can result in neonatal death when the ductus arteriosus constricts. Heart failure secondary to IPS is rare in childhood beyond early infancy. Exercise may provoke syncope and even sudden death in severe stenosis. The stenosis may remain asymptomatic but may progress to require intervention in adulthood.

Sex

IPS has no gender predilection.

Age

IPS is present from birth, although most patients are asymptomatic. The severity of stenosis can progress with age.

Clinical

History

Infundibular pulmonary stenosis (IPS) manifestations depend on the severity of obstruction and presence or absence of associated cardiac anomalies.

  • Most children grow well and are asymptomatic, even when stenosis is moderate or severe.
  • The murmur is discovered on routine auscultation, usually at birth, although cyanosis may lead to discovery of maximum obstruction.
  • Symptoms are rare in infants, with the notable exception of patients with critical stenosis.
  • Subjective complaints tend to increase with age.
  • Dyspnea and fatigue are the most common symptoms.
  • Exertion may provoke syncope or even death.
  • Precordial pain is common, and epigastric pain is often present.
  • Frank right-sided heart failure occasionally occurs in infancy or early childhood.
  • Squatting is extremely rare in children with isolated PS (compared with tetralogy of Fallot)

Physical

  • Growth and development are usually normal. Frank heart failure is rarely evident.
  • Chest asymmetry occasionally accompanies severe stenosis, but precordial bulge is uncommon.
  • Jugular venous pulse shows larger a waves as the degree of obstruction increases. These presystolic pulsations may be felt during palpation of the liver, even without evidence of cardiac failure.
  • Prominent left parasternal heave occurs if PS is significant.
  • A systolic thrill is present at the second and third left intercostal space near the sternum. Occasionally, the thrill may disappear with onset of failure.
  • The first heart sound is normal.
  • The pulmonic valve component (P-2) of the second heart sound is soft and delayed in moderate-to-severe stenosis.
    • The degree of split is proportionate to the severity of the obstruction; the greater the obstruction, the longer the RV takes to empty and the wider the split.
    • P-2 decreases in intensity in proportion to the pressure in the PA. The lower the pressure, the softer the P-2. P-2 may be inaudible with maximal obstruction.
    • In severe stenosis with unchanging cardiac output, the split may be fixed. A loud pansystolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur (ejection type), with its maximal intensity at mid systole or later (indistinguishable from that of isolated pulmonary valve stenosis [PVS]), is heard at the left sternal border and is well-conducted to the precordium, neck, and back.
  • A third heart sound is audible in the presence of an associated atrial septal defect (ASD) or anomalous pulmonary vein.
  • A fourth heart sound is heard at the lower left sternal border in severe cases. This fourth heart sound is associated with a large a wave in the RA and usually indicates a severe lesion.
  • Note the absence of the ejection click that characterizes valvar PS.
  • A loud, long, systolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur (ejection type), with its maximal intensity at mid systole or later (indistinguishable from that of isolated PVS), is heard at the left sternal border and is well-conducted to the precordium, neck, and back.
    • The murmur, although louder at the second and third left intercostal space, may be heard well at the low left sternal border.
    • The later the peak intensity of the murmur occurs, the greater the obstruction.
    • Although murmur loudness does not necessarily increase with severity, murmurs of less than grade 3/6 usually occur with mild stenosis. With moderate-to-severe stenosis, murmurs are usually systolic and grade 4/6 or louder.
    • The length of the murmur depends on duration of RV systole that, in turn, depends on severity of the stenosis. Thus, mild stenosis is associated with a short murmur, with its peak earlier than mid systole. In moderate stenosis, the murmur ends at or slightly after the aortic component of the second heart sound, which remains audible. With marked-to-severe obstruction, the murmur extends beyond the aortic component, which may be obscured.
  • Infants with critical stenosis present with variable findings.
    • Heart failure is prominent.
    • A small infant with maximal obstruction may have minimal murmur (sometimes overlooked) and cyanosis.
    • An additional systolic murmur is heard in the lower left parasternal region from the tricuspid regurgitation (TR).
    • Absence of P-2 along with the presence of cardiomegaly and the holosystolic murmur of TR highly suggests a critical PS diagnosis.

Causes

See Pathophysiology.

More on Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular

Overview: Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular
Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular
Treatment & Medication: Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular
Follow-up: Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular
Multimedia: Pulmonary Stenosis, Infundibular
References
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Further Reading

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Keywords

infundibular pulmonary stenosis, IPS, PS, primary infundibular pulmonary stenosis, subpulmonary stenosis, diffuse subpulmonary stenosis, dynamic right ventricular outflow tract obstruction, infundibular pulmonary stenosis, ventricular septal defect, VSD, stenosis, right ventricular hypertension, RV hypertension, heart failure, syncope, right-sided heart failure, tetralogy of Fallot, pulmonary valve stenosis, PVS, atrial septal defect, ASD, tricuspid regurgitation, TR

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Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Poothirikovil Venugopalan, MBBS, MD, FRCP (Glasg), FRCPCH, Consulting Staff, Department of Child Health, University Hospital of Hartlepool, UK
Poothirikovil Venugopalan, MBBS, MD, FRCP (Glasg), FRCPCH is a member of the following medical societies: British Cardiac Society, Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Jeffrey Allen Towbin, MD, MSc, FAAP, FACC, FAHA, Professor, Departments of Pediatrics (Cardiology), Cardiovascular Sciences, and Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine; Chief of Pediatric Cardiology, Foundation Chair in Pediatric Cardiac Research, Texas Children's Hospital
Jeffrey Allen Towbin, MD, MSc, FAAP, FACC, FAHA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Cardiology, American College of Sports Medicine, American Heart Association, American Medical Association, American Society of Human Genetics, Cardiac Electrophysiology Society, Heart Rhythm Society, New York Academy of Sciences, Society for Pediatric Research, Texas Medical Association, and Texas Pediatric Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Mary L Windle, PharmD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine.com, Inc
Disclosure: Pfizer Inc Stock Investment from broker recommendation; Avanir Pharma Stock Investment from broker recommendation

Managing Editor

Hugh D Allen, MD, Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology and Department of Internal Medicine, Ohio State University College of Medicine
Hugh D Allen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Cardiology, American Heart Association, American Pediatric Society, American Society of Echocardiography, Society for Pediatric Research, Society of Pediatric Echocardiography, and Western Society for Pediatric Research
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Gilbert Herzberg, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Cardiology, New York Medical College
Gilbert Herzberg, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Stuart Berger, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, Medical College of Wisconsin; Chief of Pediatric Cardiology, Medical Director of Pediatric Heart Transplant Program, Medical Director of The Heart Center, Children's Hospital of Wisconsin
Stuart Berger, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Cardiology, American College of Chest Physicians, American Heart Association, and Society for Cardiac Angiography and Interventions
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
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