eMedicine Specialties > Pediatrics: Developmental and Behavioral > Medical Topics

Autism: Multimedia

Author: James Robert Brasic, MD, MPH, Research Associate, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Russell H Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Contributor Information and Disclosures

Updated: Jul 13, 2009

Multimedia

Autism screening checklist.
(Enlarge Image)
Media file 1: Autism screening checklist.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Autism screening checklist.

Autism screening checklist.

Serotonin syndrome checklist.
(Enlarge Image)
Media file 2: Serotonin syndrome checklist.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Serotonin syndrome checklist.

Serotonin syndrome checklist.

This feature requires the newest version of Flash. You can download it here.
Media file 3: Clinicians are advised to videotape the process of verbally explaining the protocol and answering questions. Permission must be explicitly given to perform the procedure and cannot continue until the parents agree. Parents are asked to give permission to complete this protocol. The entire process is videotaped. In this segment, the mother of a healthy, normal control child gives informed consent to participate as a volunteer in a research study of autism. Occasionally, parents decline to give consent, and the procedure must cease. An earlier version of this videotape is in the New York University Medical Library, New York, New York.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Clinicians are advised to videotape the process o...

Clinicians are advised to videotape the process of verbally explaining the protocol and answering questions. Permission must be explicitly given to perform the procedure and cannot continue until the parents agree. Parents are asked to give permission to complete this protocol. The entire process is videotaped. In this segment, the mother of a healthy, normal control child gives informed consent to participate as a volunteer in a research study of autism. Occasionally, parents decline to give consent, and the procedure must cease. An earlier version of this videotape is in the New York University Medical Library, New York, New York.

This feature requires the newest version of Flash. You can download it here.
Media file 4: A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. The examiner repeated movements of the telephone receiver and tapping on the telephone receiver initially exhibited by the subject. The examiner repeated the subject's actions several times in an attempt to elicit repetition of the movement by the subject. Instead, the subject does not acknowledge the presence of the examiner. He looks away from the examiner. He turns his back to the examiner. The subject spins by rotating on a central vertical axis in his body. He exhibits nonfunctional play with the telephone. He displays frequent finger wiggling and the other hand stereotypies. He frequently vocalizes indecipherable sounds and briefly rocks. He tilts his head and looks out of the corner of his eye for a few seconds.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took dail...

A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. The examiner repeated movements of the telephone receiver and tapping on the telephone receiver initially exhibited by the subject. The examiner repeated the subject's actions several times in an attempt to elicit repetition of the movement by the subject. Instead, the subject does not acknowledge the presence of the examiner. He looks away from the examiner. He turns his back to the examiner. The subject spins by rotating on a central vertical axis in his body. He exhibits nonfunctional play with the telephone. He displays frequent finger wiggling and the other hand stereotypies. He frequently vocalizes indecipherable sounds and briefly rocks. He tilts his head and looks out of the corner of his eye for a few seconds.

This feature requires the newest version of Flash. You can download it here.
Media file 5: The examiner may attempt to establish a sequence of taking turns hitting a plate with a block. The examiner says, "My turn," and then taps the plate. The examiner gives the block to the subject and says, "Your turn." The subject may be physically assisted in the activity if the desired response does not occur.

The following is a clinical example: A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. The examiner attempted to elicit turn-taking by hitting the plate with a block. The child repeatedly jumps and rotates. He exhibits nonfunctional play with the telephone. He tilts his head and peers out of the corner of his eye. He is interested in the feel of the stick. He exhibits quick hand movements with small toys.

When his father and his brother leave the room, the child does not acknowledge their departure. When his father returns to the room, he does not run to greet him. He appears indifferent to the departure and the return of his father. He repeatedly touches the surface of the wooden block. He touches the surface of a furlike cloth. He also places this cloth to his mouth to feel the texture on his lips. He is also fascinated with a string of yarn. He moves the string of yarn up and down and back and forth. This is nonfunctional play with ordinary items.

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
The examiner may attempt to establish a sequence ...

The examiner may attempt to establish a sequence of taking turns hitting a plate with a block. The examiner says, "My turn," and then taps the plate. The examiner gives the block to the subject and says, "Your turn." The subject may be physically assisted in the activity if the desired response does not occur.

The following is a clinical example: A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. The examiner attempted to elicit turn-taking by hitting the plate with a block. The child repeatedly jumps and rotates. He exhibits nonfunctional play with the telephone. He tilts his head and peers out of the corner of his eye. He is interested in the feel of the stick. He exhibits quick hand movements with small toys.

When his father and his brother leave the room, the child does not acknowledge their departure. When his father returns to the room, he does not run to greet him. He appears indifferent to the departure and the return of his father. He repeatedly touches the surface of the wooden block. He touches the surface of a furlike cloth. He also places this cloth to his mouth to feel the texture on his lips. He is also fascinated with a string of yarn. He moves the string of yarn up and down and back and forth. This is nonfunctional play with ordinary items.

This feature requires the newest version of Flash. You can download it here.
Media file 6: The following is a clinical example that continues the segment of Image 5: A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. He appears indifferent to the departure of his brother from the room. He also does not respond with a greeting when his brother returns. He appears interested in his nonfunctional play. He displays minimal acknowledgment of the departure and return of his brother. In particular, he does not respond to his brother's touching him on the shoulder to greet him.

Instead, he demonstrates inappropriate friendliness with the psychologist who is evaluating the procedures. Although he never saw her before this assessment, he suddenly goes to her to kiss her.

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
The following is a clinical example that continue...

The following is a clinical example that continues the segment of Image 5: A 7-year-old boy with autistic disorder took daily vitamins and no other medications at the time of assessment. He appears indifferent to the departure of his brother from the room. He also does not respond with a greeting when his brother returns. He appears interested in his nonfunctional play. He displays minimal acknowledgment of the departure and return of his brother. In particular, he does not respond to his brother's touching him on the shoulder to greet him.

Instead, he demonstrates inappropriate friendliness with the psychologist who is evaluating the procedures. Although he never saw her before this assessment, he suddenly goes to her to kiss her.

More on Autism

Overview: Autism
Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Autism
Treatment & Medication: Autism
Follow-up: Autism
Multimedia: Autism
References
Further Reading
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)(TM), Text Revision. 4th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.

  2. National Center for Health Statistics. International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9-CM), 9th Revision, Clinical Modification. 4th Edition. Practice Management Information Corporation (PMIC), Los Angeles, CA; 1993.

  3. Hughes JR. Autism: the first firm finding = underconnectivity?. Epilepsy Behav. Aug 2007;11(1):20-4. [Medline].

  4. Brasic JR, Holland JA. Reliable classification of case-control studies of autistic disorder and obstetric complications. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2006;18:355-381.

  5. Brasic JR, Holland JA. A qualitative and quantitative review of obstetric complications and autistic disorder. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2007;19:337-364.

  6. Brasic JR, Holland JA, Alexander M. The increased likelihood of obstetric complications in autistic disorder [abstract]. Southern Medical Journal. 2003;96 (10 supplement):S34.

  7. Roberts EM, English PB, Grether JK, Windham GC, Somberg L, Wolff C. Maternal residence near agricultural pesticide applications and autism spectrum disorders among children in the California Central Valley. Environmental health perspectives [serial online]. 2007;Accessed 20 Sep 2007. Available at http://www.ehponline.org/members/2007/10168/10168.pdf.

  8. Samson K. CDC-backed study suggests possible link between autistic disorders, maternal perticide exposure in California. Neurology Today. September 2007;7:7.

  9. Rapin I, Tuchman RF. What is new in autism?. Curr Opin Neurol. Apr 2008;21(2):143-149. [Medline].

  10. Thompson WW, Price C, Goodson B, Shay DK, Benson P, Hinrichsen VL, et al. Early thimerosal exposure and neuropsychological outcomes at 7 to 10 years. N Engl J Med. Sep 27 2007;357(13):1281-92. [Medline].

  11. Dobbs M. What the autism studies show isn't reflected in what the candidates say. The Washington Post. April 22, 2008;AAutismBrain and Nervous System Centerhttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/collections/SU294.aspAutism Overviewhttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/Articles/29544-1.aspAutism Causeshttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/29544-2.aspAutism Symptomshttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/29544-3.aspAutism Treatmenthttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/29544-6.aspAsperger Syndrome Overviewhttp://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/54056-1.asp: A8.

  12. Kurita H. [Current status of autism studies]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. 2001;103(1):64-75. [Medline].

  13. Bailey A, Bolton P, Butler L, Le Couteur A, Murphy M, Scott S, et al. Prevalence of the fragile X anomaly amongst autistic twins and singletons. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Jul 1993;34(5):673-88. [Medline].

  14. Chudley AE, Hagerman RJ. Fragile X syndrome. J Pediatr. Jun 1987;110(6):821-31. [Medline].

  15. Cohen IL, Sudhalter V, Pfadt A, Jenkins EC, Brown WT, Vietze PM. Why are autism and the fragile-X syndrome associated? Conceptual and methodological issues. Am J Hum Genet. Feb 1991;48(2):195-202. [Medline].

  16. Einfeld SL. Autism and the fragile X syndrome. Am J Med Genet. May-Jun 1988;30(1-2):237-8. [Medline].

  17. Fisch GS, Cohen IL, Jenkins EC, Brown WT. Screening developmentally disabled male populations for fragile X: the effect of sample size. Am J Med Genet. May-Jun 1988;30(1-2):655-63. [Medline].

  18. Reiss AL, Freund L. Fragile X syndrome, DSM-III-R, and autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Nov 1990;29(6):885-91. [Medline].

  19. Baron-Cohen S, Allen J, Gillberg C. Can autism be detected at 18 months? The needle, the haystack, and the CHAT. Br J Psychiatry. Dec 1992;161:839-43. [Medline].

  20. Baron-Cohen S, Cox A, Baird G, Swettenham J, Nightingale N, Morgan K, et al. Psychological markers in the detection of autism in infancy in a large population. Br J Psychiatry. Feb 1996;168(2):158-63. [Medline].

  21. Rossignol DA. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy might improve certain pathophysiological findings in autism. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68(6):1208-27. Epub 2006 Dec 4. [Medline].

  22. Rossignol DA, Rossignol LW. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may improve symptoms in autistic children. Med Hypotheses. 2006;67(2):216-28. [Medline].

  23. Kem DL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ. Priapism associated with trazodone in an adolescent with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Jul 2002;41(7):758. [Medline].

  24. King BH, Hollander E, Sikich L, McCracken JT, Scahill L, Bregman JD, et al. Lack of efficacy of citalopram in children with autism spectrum disorders and high levels of repetitive behavior: citalopram ineffective in children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Jun 2009;66(6):583-90. [Medline].

  25. Rossignol DA. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy might improve certain pathophysiological findings in autism. Med Hypotheses. 2007;68(6):1208-27. [Medline].

  26. Rossignol DA, Rossignol LW, James SJ, Melnyk S, Mumper E. The effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on oxidative stress, inflammation, and symptoms in children with autism: an open-label pilot study. BMC Pediatr. Nov 16 2007;7:36. [Medline].

  27. Adrien JL, Barthelemy C, Perrot A, et al. Validity and reliability of the infant behavioral summarized evaluation (IBSE): a rating scale for the assessment of young children with autism and developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. Sep 1992;22(3):375-94. [Medline].

  28. Adrien JL, Faure M, Perrot A, Hameury L, Garreau B, Barthelemy C, et al. Autism and family home movies: preliminary findings. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 1991;21(1):43-9. [Medline].

  29. Allen DA, Rapin I, Wiznitzer M. Communication disorders of preschool children: the physician's responsibility. J Dev Behav Pediatr. Jun 1988;9(3):164-70. [Medline].

  30. Anderson LT, Campbell M, Adams P, Small AM, Perry R, Shell J. The effects of haloperidol on discrimination learning and behavioral symptoms in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1989;19(2):227-39. [Medline].

  31. Anderson LT, Campbell M, Grega DM, Perry R, Small AM, Green WH. Haloperidol in the treatment of infantile autism: effects on learning and behavioral symptoms. Am J Psychiatry. Oct 1984;141(10):1195-202. [Medline].

  32. Arnold LE, Aman MG, Martin A, Collier-Crespin A, Vitiello B, Tierney E, et al. Assessment in multisite randomized clinical trials of patients with autistic disorder: the Autism RUPP Network. Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2000;30(2):99-111. [Medline].

  33. Aronowitz BR, Decaria C, Allen A. The neuropsychiatry of autism and Asperger's disorder: review of the literature and case reports. CNS Spectrums. 1997;2(5):43-55.

  34. Aylward EH, Minshew NJ, Field K, Sparks BF, Singh N. Effects of age on brain volume and head circumference in autism. Neurology. Jul 23 2002;59(2):175-83. [Medline].

  35. Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, Bolton P, Simonoff E, Yuzda E, et al. Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med. Jan 1995;25(1):63-77. [Medline].

  36. Bailey AJ. The biology of autism. Psychol Med. Feb 1993;23(1):7-11. [Medline].

  37. Baker P, Piven J, Sato Y. Autism and tuberous sclerosis complex: prevalence and clinical features. J Autism Dev Disord. Aug 1998;28(4):279-85. [Medline].

  38. Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Jacobsen SJ. The incidence of autism in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1976-1997: results froma population-based study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. Jan 2005;159(1):37-44. [Medline].

  39. Barthelemy C, Adrien JL, Tanguay P, Garreau B, Fermanian J, Roux S, et al. The Behavioral Summarized Evaluation: validity and reliability of a scale for the assessment of autistic behaviors. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1990;20(2):189-204. [Medline].

  40. Bauman M, Kemper TL. Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology. Jun 1985;35(6):866-74. [Medline].

  41. Berument SK, Starr E, Pickles A, Tomlins M, Papanikolauou K, Lord C, et al. Pre-Linguistic Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Adapted for Older Individualswith Severe to Profound Mental Retardation: A Pilot Study. J Autism Dev Disord. Dec 2005;35(6):821-9. [Medline].

  42. Bettelheim B. The Empty Fortress. In: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self. New York, NY: Free Press; 1977.

  43. Birmaher B, Quintana H, Greenhill LL. Methylphenidate treatment of hyperactive autistic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Mar 1988;27(2):248-51. [Medline].

  44. Blaxill MF. Concerns continue over mercury and autism. Am J Prev Med. Jan 2004;26(1):91; reply 91-2. [Medline].

  45. Blaxill MF. Study fails to establish diagnostic substitution as a factor in increased rate of autism. Pharmacotherapy. Jun 2004;24(6):812-3; author reply 813-5. [Medline].

  46. Blaxill MF. What's going on? The question of time trends in autism. Public Health Rep. Nov-Dec 2004;119(6):536-51. [Medline].

  47. Blaxill MF, Redwood L, Bernard S. Thimerosal and autism? A plausible hypothesis that should not be dismissed. Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(5):788-94. [Medline].

  48. Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH. Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 2000;30(3):237-43. [Medline].

  49. Bodner RA, Lynch T, Lewis L, Kahn D. Serotonin syndrome. Neurology. Feb 1995;45(2):219-23. [Medline].

  50. Bolton PF, Pickles A, Murphy M, Rutter M. Autism, affective and other psychiatric disorders: patterns of familial aggregation. Psychol Med. Mar 1998;28(2):385-95. [Medline].

  51. Brasic JR. Documentation of demographic data. Psychol Rep. Aug 2003;93(1):151-2. [Medline].

  52. Brasic JR. Documentation of ethnicity. Psychol Rep. Dec 2004;95(3 Pt 1):859-61. [Medline].

  53. Brasic JR. Movements in autistic disorder. Med Hypotheses. Jul 1999;53(1):48-9. [Medline].

  54. Brasic JR. Obtaining funding for new researchers in psychology. Psychol Rep. Aug 2003;93(1):276-8. [Medline].

  55. Brasic JR, Barnett JY. Hyperkinesias in a prepubertal boy with autistic disorder treated with haloperidol and valproic acid. Psychol Rep. Feb 1997;80(1):163-70. [Medline].

  56. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Ahn SC, Nadrich RH, Will MV, Clair A. Clinical assessment of self-injurious behavior. Psychol Rep. Feb 1997;80(1):155-60. [Medline].

  57. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Aisemberg P, et al. Dyskinesias subside off all medication in a boy with autistic disorder and severe mental retardation. Psychol Rep. Dec 1997;81(3 Pt 1):755-67. [Medline].

  58. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Kaplan D, Sheitman BB, Aisemberg P, Lafargue RT, et al. Clomipramine ameliorates adventitious movements and compulsions in prepubertal boys with autistic disorder and severe mental retardation. Neurology. Jul 1994;44(7):1309-12. [Medline].

  59. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Kowalik S, Tsaltas MO, Ahmad R. Neurobehavioral assessment of children and adolescents attending a developmental disabilities clinic. Psychol Rep. Dec 2004;95(3 Pt 2):1079-86. [Medline].

  60. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Lafargue RT. The classification of stereotypies and other movement disorders in persons with autism. In: Presented at: 4th Conference of the International Federation of Classification Societies. Paris: 1993.

  61. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Sheitman BB. Behavioral effects of clomipramine on prepubertal boys with autistic disorder and severe mental retardation. CNS Spectrums. 1998;3:39-46.

  62. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Sheitman BB, Lafargue RT, Ahn SC. Clinical assessment of adventitious movements. Psychol Rep. Dec 1998;83(3 Pt 1):739-50. [Medline].

  63. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Sheitman BB, Lafargue RT, Ahn SC. Clinical assessment of adventitious movements. Psychol Rep. Dec 1998;83(3 Pt 1):739-50. [Medline].

  64. Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Sheitman BB, Tsaltas MO. Adverse effects of clomipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Sep 1997;36(9):1165-6. [Medline].

  65. Brasic JR, Gianutsos JG. Neuromotor assessment and autistic disorder. Autism. In: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Vol 4. 2000:287-298.

  66. Brasic JR, Morgan RH. Suicide is probably more common in untreated youths than in those receiving treatment: the need for a retrospective epidemiological study. Med Hypotheses. 2005;65(6):1204-5. [Medline].

  67. Brasic JR, Will MV, Ahn SC, Nadrich RH, McNally G. A review of the literature and a preliminary study of family compliance in a developmental disabilities clinic. Psychol Rep. Feb 1998;82(1):275-86. [Medline].

  68. Brasic JR, Zagzag D, Kowalik S, et al. Progressive catatonia. Psychol Rep. Feb 1999;84(1):239-46. [Medline].

  69. Buchsbaum MS, Siegel BV Jr, Wu JC, Hazlett E, Sicotte N, Haier R, et al. Brief report: attention performance in autism and regional brain metabolic rate assessed by positron emission tomography. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 1992;22(1):115-25. [Medline].

  70. Burd L, Fisher W, Kerbeshian J. Pervasive disintegrative disorder: are Rett syndrome and Heller dementia infantilis subtypes?. Dev Med Child Neurol. Oct 1989;31(5):609-16. [Medline].

  71. Burd L, Kerbeshian J. Psychogenic and neurodevelopmental factors in autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Mar 1988;27(2):252-3. [Medline].

  72. Burd L, Severud R, Kerbeshian J, Klug MG. Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism. J Perinat Med. 1999;27(6):441-50. [Medline].

  73. Campbell M, Locascio JJ, Choroco MC, Spencer EK, Malone RP, Kafantaris V, et al. Stereotypies and tardive dyskinesia: abnormal movements in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1990;26(2):260-6. [Medline].

  74. Campbell M, Overall JE. Diagnostic criteria and behavior patterns in infantile autism. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1989;25(2):194-7. [Medline].

  75. Campbell M, Palij M. Behavioral and cognitive measures used in psychopharmacological studies of infantile autism. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1985;21(3):1047-53. [Medline].

  76. Carmagnat-Dubois F, Desombre H, Perrot A, Roux S, Le Noir P, Sauvage D, et al. [Rett syndrome and autism. Early comparative evaluation for signs of autism using family movies]. Encephale. Jul-Aug 1997;23(4):273-9. [Medline].

  77. Carracedo A, Martin Murcia F, García Penas JJ, Ramos J, Cassinello E, Calvo MD. [Autistic syndrome associated with refractory temporal epilepsy]. Rev Neurol. Nov-Dec 1995;23(124):1239-41. [Medline].

  78. Casanova MF, Buxhoeveden DP, Switala AE, Roy E. Minicolumnar pathology in autism. Neurology. Feb 12 2002;58(3):428-32. [Medline].

  79. Casey BJ, Gordon CT, Mannheim GB, Rumsey JM. Dysfunctional attention in autistic savants. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. Nov 1993;15(6):933-46. [Medline].

  80. Caston J, Yon E, Mellier D, Godfrey HP, Delhaye-bouchaud N, Mariani J. An animal model of autism: behavioural studies in the GS guinea-pig. Eur J Neurosci. Aug 1998;10(8):2677-84. [Medline].

  81. Cederlund M, Gillberg C. One hundred males with Asperger syndrome: a clinical study of background andassociated factors. Dev Med Child Neurol. Oct 2004;46(10):652-60. [Medline].

  82. Centofanti M. Rat model could yield clues in autism. Johns Hopkins Magazine. 2001;53 (2):42-43.

  83. Chez MG, Buchanan CP, Bagan BT, Hammer MS, McCarthy KS, Ovrutskaya I, et al. Secretin and autism: a two-part clinical investigation. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2000;30(2):87-94. [Medline].

  84. Chiron C, Leboyer M, Leon F, Jambaque I, Nuttin C, Syrota A. SPECT of the brain in childhood autism: evidence for a lack of normal hemispheric asymmetry. Dev Med Child Neurol. Oct 1995;37(10):849-60. [Medline].

  85. Cohen IL, Brown WT, Jenkins EC, Krawczun MS, French JH, Raguthu S, et al. Fragile X syndrome in females with autism. Am J Med Genet. Oct 1989;34(2):302-3. [Medline].

  86. Cohen S. Targeting Autism. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1998.

  87. Comings DE, Comings BG. Clinical and genetic relationships between autism-pervasive developmental disorder and Tourette syndrome: a study of 19 cases. Am J Med Genet. May 1 1991;39(2):180-91. [Medline].

  88. Cook EH. Autism: review of neurochemical investigation. Synapse. 1990;6(3):292-308. [Medline].

  89. Cook EH Jr. Genetics of autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 1998;4:113-120.

  90. Courchesne E, Akshoomoff NA, Townsend J, Saitoh O. A model system for the study of attention and the cerebellum: infantile autism. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1995;44:315-25. [Medline].

  91. Courchesne E, Saitoh O, Townsend JP, Yeung-Courchesne R, Press GA, Lincoln AJ, et al. Cerebellar hypoplasia and hyperplasia in infantile autism. Lancet. Jan 1 1994;343(8888):63-4. [Medline].

  92. Courchesne E, Saitoh O, Yeung-Courchesne R, Press GA, Lincoln AJ, Haas RH, et al. Abnormality of cerebellar vermian lobules VI and VII in patients with infantileautism: identification of hypoplastic and hyperplastic subgroups with MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Jan 1994;162(1):123-30. [Medline].

  93. Courchesne E, Townsend J, Saitoh O. The brain in infantile autism: posterior fossa structures are abnormal. Neurology. Feb 1994;44(2):214-23. [Medline].

  94. Courchesne E, Townsend J, Saitoh O. The cerebellum and autism. Neurology. 1995;45:399-402.

  95. Courchesne E, Yeung-Courchesne R, Egaas B. Methodology in neuroanatomic measurement. Neurology. Feb 1994;44(2):203-8. [Medline].

  96. Cox RD, Schopler E. Aggression and self-injurious behaviors in persons with autism--the TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communications Handicapped Children) approach. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1993;56(2):85-90. [Medline].

  97. Croen LA, Grether JK, Yoshida CK, Odouli R, Van de Water J. Maternal autoimmune diseases, asthma and allergies, and childhood autism spectrumdisorders: a case-control study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. Feb 2005;159(2):151-7. [Medline].

  98. Croen LA, Yoshida CK, Odouli R, Newman TB. Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. Feb 2005;115(2):e135-8. [Medline].

  99. Dahlgren Sandberg A, Ehlers S, Hagberg B. The Rett syndrome complex: communicative functions in relation to developmental level and autistic features. Autism. In: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Vol 4. 2000:249-267.

  100. Dahlgren SO, Gillberg C. Symptoms in the first two years of life. A preliminary population study of infantile autism. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci. 1989;238(3):169-74. [Medline].

  101. Davidovitch M, Patterson B, Gartside P. Head circumference measurements in children with autism. J Child Neurol. Sep 1996;11(5):389-93. [Medline].

  102. Dawson G, Klinger LG, Panagiotides H, Lewy A, Castelloe P. Subgroups of autistic children based on social behavior display distinct patterns of brain activity. J Abnorm Child Psychol. Oct 1995;23(5):569-83. [Medline].

  103. DelGiudice-Asch G, Simon L, Schmeidler J, Cunningham-Rundles C, Hollander E. Brief report: a pilot open clinical trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in childhood autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 1999;29(2):157-60. [Medline].

  104. Deonna TW. Acquired epileptiform aphasia in children (Landau-Kleffner syndrome). J Clin Neurophysiol. Jul 1991;8(3):288-98. [Medline].

  105. DeStefano F, Chen RT. Negative association between MMR and autism. Lancet. Jun 12 1999;353(9169):1987-8. [Medline].

  106. DiLavore PC, Lord C, Rutter M. The pre-linguistic autism diagnostic observation schedule. J Autism Dev Disord. Aug 1995;25(4):355-79. [Medline].

  107. Dura JR, Mulick JA, Rasnake LK. Prevalence of stereotypy among institutionalized nonambulatory profoundly mentally retarded people. Am J Ment Defic. Mar 1987;91(5):548-9. [Medline].

  108. Egaas B, Courchesne E, Saitoh O. Reduced size of corpus callosum in autism. Arch Neurol. Aug 1995;52(8):794-801. [Medline].

  109. Elia M, Musumeci SA, Ferri R, Bergonzi P. Clinical and neurophysiological aspects of epilepsy in subjects with autism and mental retardation. Am J Ment Retard. Jul 1995;100(1):6-16. [Medline].

  110. Esquembre J. Su mejor maestro, un delfin: un delfinario de Alicante ensaya con exito terapias para que los ninos autistas aprendan a comunicarse [Your main teacher, a dolphin: a dolphinarium in Alicante teaches with results therpies for autistic children to learn to. El Pais [Madrid]. 1994;26.

  111. Fatemi SH. The role of Reelin in pathology of autism. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7(9):919-20. [Medline].

  112. Fatemi SH, Earle J, Kanodia R, Kist D, Emamian ES, Patterson PH, et al. Prenatal viral infection leads to pyramidal cell atrophy and macrocephaly in adulthood: implications for genesis of autism and schizophrenia. Cell Mol Neurobiol. Feb 2002;22(1):25-33. [Medline].

  113. Fatemi SH, Halt AR, Realmuto G, Earle J, Kist DA, Thuras P, et al. Purkinje cell size is reduced in cerebellum of patients with autism. Cell Mol Neurobiol. Apr 2002;22(2):171-5. [Medline].

  114. Fatemi SH, Halt AR, Stary JM, Kanodia R, Schulz SC, Realmuto GR. Glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 and 67 kDa proteins are reduced in autistic parietal and cerebellar cortices. Biol Psychiatry. Oct 15 2002;52(8):805-10. [Medline].

  115. Fatemi SH, Stary JM, Egan EA. Reduced blood levels of reelin as a vulnerability factor in pathophysiology of autistic disorder. Cell Mol Neurobiol. Apr 2002;22(2):139-52. [Medline].

  116. Filipek PA. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in autism: the cerebellar vermis. Curr Opin Neurol. Apr 1995;8(2):134-8. [Medline].

  117. Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Ashwal S, Baranek GT, Cook EH Jr, Dawson G, et al. Practice parameter: screening and diagnosis of autism: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society. Neurology. Aug 22 2000;55(4):468-79. [Medline].

  118. FitzGerald PM, Jankovic J, Glaze DG, Schultz R, Percy AK. Extrapyramidal involvement in Rett's syndrome. Neurology. Feb 1990;40(2):293-5. [Medline].

  119. FitzGerald PM, Jankovic J, Percy AK. Rett syndrome and associated movement disorders. Mov Disord. 1990;5(3):195-202. [Medline].

  120. Fleischhacker WW, Bergmann KJ, Perovich R, Pestreich LK, Borenstein M, Lieberman JA, et al. The Hillside Akathisia Scale: a new rating scale for neuroleptic-induced akathisia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 1989;25:222-226. [Medline].

  121. Folstein SE, Bisson E, Santangelo SL, Piven J. Finding specific genes that cause autism: a combination of approaches will be needed to maximize power. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1998;28(5):439-45. [Medline].

  122. Freeman BJ, Ritvo ER, Needleman R, Yokota A. The stability of cognitive and linguistic parameters in autism: a five- year prospective study. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. Jul 1985;24(4):459-64. [Medline].

  123. Freeman BJ, Ritvo ER, Schroth PC. Behavior assessment of the syndrome of autism: behavior observation system. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. Sep 1984;23(5):588-94. [Medline].

  124. Freeman BJ, Ritvo ER, Yokota A, Ritvo A. A scale for rating symptoms of patients with the syndrome of autism in real life settings. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. Jan 1986;25(1):130-6. [Medline].

  125. Frith U. Autism and Asperger Syndrome. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 1991.

  126. Frith U, Morton J, Leslie AM. The cognitive basis of a biological disorder: autism. Trends Neurosci. Oct 1991;14(10):433-8. [Medline].

  127. Garber HJ, McGonigle JJ, Slomka GT, Monteverde E. Clomipramine treatment of stereotypic behaviors and self-injury in patients with developmental disabilities. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Nov 1992;31(6):1157-60. [Medline].

  128. Garber HJ, Ritvo ER. Magnetic resonance imaging of the posterior fossa in autistic adults. Am J Psychiatry. Feb 1992;149(2):245-7. [Medline].

  129. Garfin DG, McCallon D, Cox R. Validity and reliability of the Childhood Autism Rating Scale with autistic adolescents. J Autism Dev Disord. Sep 1988;18(3):367-78. [Medline].

  130. Gedye A. Frontal lobe seizures in autism. Med Hypotheses. Feb 1991;34(2):174-82. [Medline].

  131. Gillberg C. Chromosomal disorders and autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1998;28(5):415-25. [Medline].

  132. Gillberg C. Endogenous opioids and opiate antagonists in autism: brief review of empirical findings and implications for clinicians. Dev Med Child Neurol. Mar 1995;37(3):239-45. [Medline].

  133. Gillberg C. Neuropsychiatric disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. Apr 1998;11(2):109-14. [Medline].

  134. Gillberg C. The treatment of epilepsy in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 1991;21(1):61-77. [Medline].

  135. Gillberg C, Cederlund M. Asperger syndrome: familial and pre- and perinatal factors. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2005;35(2):159-66. [Medline].

  136. Gillberg C, Coleman M. The biology of the autistic syndromes. In: Clinics in Developmental Medicine. 3rd ed. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press; 2000.

  137. Gillberg C, Schaumann H, Gillberg IC. Autism in immigrants: children born in Sweden to mothers born in Uganda. J Intellect Disabil Res. Apr 1995;39 (Pt 2):141-4. [Medline].

  138. Glasson EJ, Bower C, Petterson B, de Klerk N, Chaney G, Hallmayer JF. Perinatal factors and the development of autism: a population study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Jun 2004;61(6):618-27. [Medline].

  139. Glasson EJ, Wray J. Obtaining consent affects the value of the Western Australian autism register. Med J Aust. Nov 1 2004;181(9):514-5. [Medline].

  140. Gleberzon BJ, Rosenberg-Gleberzon AL. On autism: its prevalence, diagnosis, causes, and treatment. Topics in Clinical Chiropractic. 2001;8:42-57.

  141. Goldberg D. MMR, autism, and adam. BMJ. Feb 5 2000;320(7231):389. [Medline].

  142. Goleman D. New treatments for autism arouse hope and skepticism. New York Times: July 13, 1993:C1, C11.

  143. Gordon CT, Rapoport JL, Hamburger SD, State RC, Mannheim GB. Differential response of seven subjects with autistic disorder to clomipramine and desipramine. Am J Psychiatry. Mar 1992;149(3):363-6. [Medline].

  144. Gordon CT, State RC, Nelson JE, Hamburger SD, Rapoport JL. A double-blind comparison of clomipramine, desipramine, and placebo in the treatment of autistic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Jun 1993;50(6):441-7. [Medline].

  145. Grandin T. My mind is a web browser: how people with autism think. Cerebrum. 2000;2(1):14-22.

  146. Gray C, Dutkiexicz M, Fleck C. The social story book. Jenison, Mich: Jenison Public Schools; 1993.

  147. Gray C, Garand J. Social stories: improving responses of students with autism with accurate social information. Focus on Autistic Behavior. 1993;8:1-10.

  148. Greenspan S, Wieder S. A functional developmental approach to autism spectrum disorders. JASH. 1999;24:147-161.

  149. Grether J, Croen L, Theis C, Blaxill M, Haley B, Holmes A. Baby hair, mercury toxicity and autism. Int J Toxicol. Jul-Aug 2004;23(4):275-6. [Medline].

  150. Griffith EM, Pennington BF, Wehner EA, Rogers SJ. Executive functions in young children with autism. Child Dev. Jul-Aug 1999;70(4):817-32. [Medline].

  151. Gringas P. Practical paediatric psychopharmacological prescribing in autism: the potential and the pitfalls. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Vol 4. 2000:229-247.

  152. Gross J. As autistic children grow, so does social gap. 154(53,137). The New York Times: Feburary 26 2005:A1, A8.

  153. Guerin P, Lyon G, Barthelemy C, Sostak E, Chevrollier V, Garreau B, et al. Neuropathological study of a case of autistic syndrome with severe mental retardation. Dev Med Child Neurol. Mar 1996;38(3):203-11. [Medline].

  154. Gutierrez GC, Smalley SL, Tanguay PE. Autism in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 1998;28(2):97-103. [Medline].

  155. Hadwin J, Baron-Cohen S, Howlin P, Hill K. Does teaching theory of mind have an effect on the ability to develop conversation in children with autism?. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1997;27(5):519-37. [Medline].

  156. Hallett JJ, Kiessling LS. Infection-triggered OCD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Oct 1997;36(10):1320-2. [Medline].

  157. Hallett JJ, Kiessling LS. Neuroimmunology of tics and other childhood hyperkinesias. Neurol Clin. May 1997;15(2):333-44. [Medline].

  158. Hameury L, Roux S, Barthelemy C, Adrien JL, Desombre H, Sauvage D, et al. Quantified multidimensional assessment of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Application for bioclinical research. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Apr 1995;4(2):123-35. [Medline].

  159. Hardan AY, Minshew NJ, Keshavan MS. Corpus callosum size in autism. Neurology. Oct 10 2000;55(7):1033-6. [Medline].

  160. Harris JC. Developmental Neuropsychiatry: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Vol 2. Oxford University Press; 1995.

  161. Harris JC. Developmental Neuropsychiatry: Fundamentals. Vol 1. Oxford University Press; 1995.

  162. Harris S, Weiss M. Right from the Start: Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with Autism. Bethesda, Md: Woodbine House; 1998.

  163. Harris SR, MacKay LL, Osborn JA. Autistic behaviors in offspring of mothers abusing alcohol and other drugs: a series of case reports. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. Jun 1995;19(3):660-5. [Medline].

  164. Harrison DW, Demaree HA, Shenal BV, Everhart DE. QEEG assisted neuropsychological evaluation of autism. Int J Neurosci. Feb 1998;93(1-2):133-40. [Medline].

  165. Hart CA. A Parent's Guide to Autism. NY: Pocket Books; 1993.

  166. Hashimoto T, Tayama M, Miyazaki M, Murakawa K, Shimakawa S, Yoneda Y, et al. Brainstem involvement in high functioning autistic children. Acta Neurol Scand. Aug 1993;88(2):123-8. [Medline].

  167. Hashimoto T, Tayama M, Murakawa K, Yoshimoto T, Miyazaki M, et al. Development of the brainstem and cerebellum in autistic patients. J Autism Dev Disord. Feb 1995;25(1):1-18. [Medline].

  168. Haznedar MM, Buchsbaum MS, Wei TC, Hof PR, Cartwright C, Bienstock CA, et al. Limbic circuitry in patients with autism spectrum disorders studied with positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Psychiatry. Dec 2000;157(12):1994-2001. [Medline].

  169. Heh CW, Smith R, Wu J, Hazlett E, Russell A, Asarnow R, et al. Positron emission tomography of the cerebellum in autism. Am J Psychiatry. Feb 1989;146(2):242-5. [Medline].

  170. Heimann M, Nelson KE, Tjus T, Gillberg C. Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1995;25(5):459-80. [Medline].

  171. Heinen F, Petersen H, Fietzek U, Mall V, Schulte-Monting J, Korinthenberg R. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with Rett syndrome: preliminary results. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;6 Suppl 1:61-3. [Medline].

  172. Hertzig ME, Snow ME, Sherman M. Affect and cognition in autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Mar 1989;28(2):195-9. [Medline].

  173. Hippler K, Klicpera C. A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of 'autistic psychopaths'diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital, Vienna. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. Feb 28 2003;358(1430):291-301. [Medline].

  174. Hobson RP, Ouston J, Lee A. What's in a face? The case of autism. Br J Psychol. Nov 1988;79 (Pt 4):441-53. [Medline].

  175. Hodgdon L. Visual strategies for improving communication. Troy, Mich: Quirk Roberts Publishing; 1995.

  176. Hofman KJ, Harris EL, Bryan RN, Denckla MB. Neurofibromatosis type 1: the cognitive phenotype. J Pediatr. Apr 1994;124(4):S1-8. [Medline].

  177. Hollander E. 24 of the Medical Psychiatry Series. In: Autism Spectrum Disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 2003:[Full Text].

  178. Hollander E, Cartwright C, Wong CM. A dimensional approach to the autism spectrum. CNS Spectrums. 1998;3(3):22-39.

  179. Hollander E, DelGiudice-Asch G, Simon L, Schmeidler J, Cartwright C, DeCaria CM, et al. B lymphocyte antigen D8/17 and repetitive behaviors in autism. Am J Psychiatry. Feb 1999;156(2):317-20. [Medline].

  180. Hollander E, Kaplan A, Cartwright C, Reichman D. Venlafaxine in children, adolescents, and young adults with autism spectrum disorders: an open retrospective clinical report. J Child Neurol. Feb 2000;15(2):132-5. [Medline].

  181. Hollander E, Novotny S, Allen A, Aronowitz B, Cartwright C, DeCaria C. The relationship between repetitive behaviors and growth hormone response to sumatriptan challenge in adult autistic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. Feb 2000;22(2):163-7. [Medline].

  182. Holmes DL. Autism Through the Lifespan. In: the Eden Model. Woodbine House: Bethesda, Md; 1998.

  183. Honda H, Shimizu Y, Rutter M. No effect of MMR withdrawal on the incidence of autism: a total populationstudy. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Jun 2005;46(6):572-9. [Medline].

  184. Horrigan JP, Barnhill LJ. Risperidone and explosive aggressive autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1997;27(3):313-23. [Medline].

  185. Horrigan JP, Barnhill LJ, Courvoisie HE. Olanzapine in PDD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Sep 1997;36(9):1166-7. [Medline].

  186. Horvath K, Papadimitriou JC, Rabsztyn A, Drachenberg C, Tildon JT. Gastrointestinal abnormalities in children with autistic disorder. J Pediatr. Nov 1999;135(5):559-63. [Medline].

  187. Horvath K, Stefanatos G, Sokolski KN, Wachtel R, Nabors L, Tildon JT. Improved social and language skills after secretin administration in patients with autistic spectrum disorders. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys. 1998;9(1):9-15. [Medline].

  188. Hoshino Y, Kaneko M, Yashima Y, Kumashiro H, Volkmar FR, Cohen DJ. Clinical features of autistic children with setback course in their infancy. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol. Jun 1987;41(2):237-45. [Medline].

  189. Howlin P. Behavioural techniques to reduce self-injurious behaviour in children with autism. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1993;56(2):75-84. [Medline].

  190. Howlin P. Prognosis in autism: do specialist treatments affect long-term outcome?. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Jun 1997;6(2):55-72. [Medline].

  191. Hughes C, Soares-Boucaud I, Hochmann J, Frith U. Social behaviour in pervasive developmental disorders: effects of informant, group and "theory-of-mind". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Dec 1997;6(4):191-8. [Medline].

  192. Hughes R. Living with 'the look': how passersby see my autistic son's antics is making me change the way I see myself. Newsweek: 1997:20-21.

  193. Hultman CM, Sparen P, Cnattingius S. Perinatal risk factors for infantile autism. Epidemiology. Jul 2002;13(4):417-23. [Medline].

  194. Hultman CM, Sparen P. Autism--prenatal insults or an epiphenomenon of a strongly genetic disorder?. Lancet. Aug 7-13 2004;364(9433):485-7. [Medline].

  195. Insel TR, O'Brien DJ, Leckman JF. Oxytocin, vasopressin, and autism: is there a connection?. Biol Psychiatry. Jan 15 1999;45(2):145-57. [Medline].

  196. Insel TR, Winslow JT. Serotonin and neuropeptides in affiliative behaviors. Biol Psychiatry. Aug 1 1998;44(3):207-19. [Medline].

  197. James G. Autistic teen-ager arraigned in death of his infant nephew. New York Times. December 20, 1994:B2.

  198. Jan JE, Abroms IF, Freeman RD, Brown GM, Espezel H, Connolly MB. Rapid cycling in severely multidisabled children: a form of bipolar affective disorder?. Pediatr Neurol. Feb 1994;10(1):34-9. [Medline].

  199. Jick H, Kaye JA. Autism and DPT vaccination in the United Kingdom. N Engl J Med. Jun 24 2004;350(26):2722-3. [Medline].

  200. Jick H, Kaye JA. Epidemiology and possible causes of autism. Pharmacotherapy. Dec 2003;23(12):1524-30. [Medline].

  201. Jick H, Kaye JA. Study fails to establish diagnostic substitution as a factor in increased rate of autism. Authors' reply. Pharmacotherapy. 2004;24:813-815.

  202. Jick H, Kaye JA, Black C. Changes in risk of autism in the U.K. for birth cohorts 1990-1998. Epidemiology. Sep 2003;14(5):630-2. [Medline].

  203. Jinnah HA, Harris JC, Reich SC. The motor disorder of Lesch-Nyhan disease. Mov Disord. 1998;13 (Suppl 2):98.

  204. Johnson LA. N.J. town might have unique cluster of autism. USA Today; January 20, 1999:10A.

  205. Johnson MH, Siddons F, Frith U, Morton J. Can autism be predicted on the basis of infant screening tests?. Dev Med Child Neurol. Apr 1992;34(4):316-20. [Medline].

  206. Juul-Dam N, Townsend J, Courchesne E. Prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal factors in autism, pervasive developmentaldisorder-not otherwise specified, and the general population. Pediatrics. Apr 2001;107(4):E63. [Medline].

  207. Kano Y, Ohta M, Nagai Y, Yokota K, Shimizu Y. Tourette's disorder coupled with infantile autism: a prospective study of two boys. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol. Mar 1988;42(1):49-57. [Medline].

  208. Kawasaki Y, Yokota K, Shinomiya M, Shimizu Y, Niwa S. Brief report: electroencephalographic paroxysmal activities in the frontal area emerged in middle childhood and during adolescence in a follow-up study of autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1997;27(5):605-20. [Medline].

  209. Keenan M, Kerr KP, Dillenburger K, eds. Parents' Education as Autism Therapists. In: Applied Behaviour Analysis in Context. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 1999.

  210. Kemner C, Verbaten MN, Cuperus JM, Camfferman G, van Engeland H. Auditory event-related brain potentials in autistic children and three different control groups. Biol Psychiatry. Aug 1 1995;38(3):150-65. [Medline].

  211. Kerbeshian J, Burd L. Epidemiology and comorbidity. The North Dakota prevalence studies of Tourette syndrome and other developmental disorders. Adv Neurol. 1992;58:67-74. [Medline].

  212. Klee BJ, Back S, Green WH. Tricyclic antidepressants in child and adolescent psychiatry: indications, use, and safety. Primary Psychiatry. 1998;5(7):86-90.

  213. Klin A, Volkmar FR, Sparrow SS. Asperger Syndrome. NY: Guilford Publications; 2000.

  214. Koegel L, Koegel R, Harrower J. Pivotal response intervention I: Overview. JASH. 1999;24:174-185.

  215. Koegel RL, Koegel LK. Teaching children with autism: strategies for initiating positive interactions and improving learning opportunities. Baltimore, Md: Brookes; 1995.

  216. Koegel RL, Mentis M. Motivation in childhood autism: can they or won't they?. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Mar 1985;ID - MH28210/MH/NIMH(2):185-91. [Medline].

  217. Krug DA, Arick J, Almond P. Behavior checklist for identifying severely handicapped individuals with high levels of autistic behavior. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Jul 1980;21(3):221-9. [Medline].

  218. Kurlan R. Diagnostic criteria for genetic studies of Tourette syndrome. Arch Neurol. May 1997;54(5):517-8. [Medline].

  219. Kurlan R. Future direction of research in Tourette syndrome. Neurol Clin. May 1997;15(2):451-6. [Medline].

  220. Kurlan R. Tourette syndrome. Treatment of tics. Neurol Clin. May 1997;15(2):403-9. [Medline].

  221. Lafargue T, Brasic J. Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: a central sensory disturbance. Med Hypotheses. Oct 2000;55(4):314-8. [Medline].

  222. Lainhart JE, Folstein SE. Affective disorders in people with autism: a review of published cases. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1994;24(5):587-601. [Medline].

  223. Lainhart JE, Piven J. Diagnosis, treatment, and neurobiology of autism in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. Aug 1995;7(4):392-400. [Medline].

  224. Lamb JA, Moore J, Bailey A, Monaco AP. Autism: recent molecular genetic advances. Hum Mol Genet. Apr 12 2000;9(6):861-8. [Medline].

  225. Lanier JL, Grandin T, Green RD, Avery D, McGee K. The relationship between reaction to sudden, intermittent movements and sounds and temperament. J Anim Sci. Jun 2000;78(6):1467-74. [Medline].

  226. Larsen FW, Mouridsen SE. The outcome in children with childhood autism and Asperger syndrome originally diagnosed as psychotic. A 30-year follow-up study of subjects hospitalized as children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Dec 1997;6(4):181-90. [Medline].

  227. [Best Evidence] Larsson HJ, Eaton WW, Madsen KM, Vestergaard M, Olesen AV, Agerbo E, et al. Risk factors for autism: perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history, andsocioeconomic status. Am J Epidemiol. May 15 2005;161(10):916-25; discussion 926-8. [Medline].

  228. Lawler CP, Croen LA, Grether JK, Van de Water J. Identifying environmental contributions to autism: provocative clues and falseleads. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2004;10(4):292-302. [Medline].

  229. Le Couteur A. Autism: current understanding and management. Br J Hosp Med. Jun 1990;43(6):448-52. [Medline].

  230. Le Couteur A, Rutter M, Lord C, Rios P, Robertson S, Holdgrafer M, et al. Autism diagnostic interview: a standardized investigator-based instrument. J Autism Dev Disord. Sep 1989;19(3):363-87. [Medline].

  231. Leary MR, Hill DA. Moving on: autism and movement disturbance. Ment Retard. Feb 1996;34(1):39-53. [Medline].

  232. Leboyer M, Philippe A, Bouvard M, Guilloud-Bataille M, Bondoux D, Tabuteau F, et al. Whole blood serotonin and plasma beta-endorphin in autistic probands and their first-degree relatives. Biol Psychiatry. Jan 15 1999;45(2):158-63. [Medline].

  233. Lewis RB. Assistive technology and learning disabilities: today's realities and tomorrow's promises. J Learn Disabil. Jan-Feb 1998;31(1):16-26, 54. [Medline].

  234. Lincoln AJ, Courchesne E, Harms L, Allen M. Sensory modulation of auditory stimuli in children with autism and receptive developmental language disorder: event-related brain potential evidence. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1995;25(5):521-39. [Medline].

  235. Lomia M, Daraselia M. Metoclopramide and naloxone in treatment of tics. Mov Disord. 1998;13 (Suppl 2):203.

  236. London E, Johnson C. The neuropathology of autism: what we know and don't know. Narrative: Newsletter of the National Alliance for Autism Research. 1998:1, 16-20.

  237. Lord C. Follow-up of two-year-olds referred for possible autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Nov 1995;36(8):1365-82. [Medline].

  238. Lord C, Risi S, Lambrecht L, Cook EH Jr, Leventhal BL, DiLavore PC, et al. The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 2000;30(3):205-23. [Medline].

  239. Lord C, Rutter M, Goode S, Heemsbergen J, Jordan H, Mawhood L, et al. Autism diagnostic observation schedule: a standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1989;19(2):185-212. [Medline].

  240. Lord C, Rutter M, Le Couteur A. Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1994;24(5):659-85. [Medline].

  241. Lord C, Schopler E. Stability of assessment results of autistic and non-autistic language- impaired children from preschool years to early school age. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Jul 1989;30(4):575-90. [Medline].

  242. Lord C, Schopler E. The role of age at assessment, developmental level, and test in the stability of intelligence scores in young autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. Dec 1989;19(4):483-99. [Medline].

  243. Lord C, Storoschuk S, Rutter M. Using the ADI-R to diagnose autism in preschool children. Infant Mental Health Journal. Fall 1993;14 (3):234-252.

  244. Lovaas OI. Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. J Consult Clin Psychol. Feb 1987;55(1):3-9. [Medline].

  245. Mahoney WJ, Szatmari P, MacLean JE, Bryson SE, Bartolucci G, Walter SD, et al. Reliability and accuracy of differentiating pervasive developmental disorder subtypes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Mar 1998;37(3):278-85. [Medline].

  246. Marshall BL, Napolitano DA, McAdam DB, Dunleavy III JJ, Tessing JL, Varrell J. Venlafaxine and increased aggression in a female with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Apr 2003;42(4):383-4. [Medline].

  247. Matese M, Matson JL, Sevin J. Comparison of psychotic and autistic children using behavioral observation. J Autism Dev Disord. Feb 1994;24(1):83-94. [Medline].

  248. Matthews J, Williams J. The self-help guide for special kids and their parents. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 2000.

  249. McCracken JT, McGough J, Shah B, Cronin P, Hong D, Aman MG, et al. Risperidone in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. N Engl J Med. Aug 1 2002;347(5):314-21. [Medline].

  250. McDougle CJ, Kem DL, Posey DJ. Case series: use of ziprasidone for maladaptive symptoms in youths with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Aug 2002;41(8):921-7. [Medline].

  251. McDougle CJ, Price LH, Goodman WK. Fluvoxamine treatment of coincident autistic disorder and obsessive- compulsive disorder: a case report. J Autism Dev Disord. Dec 1990;20(4):537-43. [Medline].

  252. McDougle CJ, Price LH, Volkmar FR. Recent advances in the pharmacotherapy of autism and related conditions. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1994;3:71-89.

  253. McDougle CJ, Price LH, Volkmar FR, Goodman WK, Ward-O'Brien D, Nielsen J, et al. Clomipramine in autism: preliminary evidence of efficacy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Jul 1992;31(4):746-50. [Medline].

  254. McDougle CJ, Scahill L, McCracken JT, Aman MG, Tierney E, Arnold LE, et al. Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology (RUPP) Autism Network. Background and rationale for an initial controlled study of risperidone. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. Jan 2000;9(1):201-24. [Medline].

  255. McGee G, Morrier M, Daly T. An incidental teaching approach to early intervention for toddlers with autism. JASH. 1999;24:133-146.

  256. McInnes LA, González PJ, Manghi ER, Esquivel M, Monge S, Delgado MF, et al. A genetic study of autism in Costa Rica: multiple variables affecting IQ scoresobserved in a preliminary sample of autistic cases. BMC Psychiatry. Mar 21 2005;5(1):15. [Medline].

  257. McLennan JD, Lord C, Schopler E. Sex differences in higher functioning people with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1993;23(2):217-27. [Medline].

  258. McManus IC, Murray B, Doyle K, Baron-Cohen S. Handedness in childhood autism shows a dissociation of skill and preference. Cortex. Sep 1992;28(3):373-81. [Medline].

  259. Mendez MF, Mirea A. Adult head-banging and stereotypic movement disorders. Mov Disord. Sep 1998;13(5):825-8. [Medline].

  260. Merritt JL 2nd, Jalal SM, Barbaresi WJ, Babovic-Vuksanovic D. 14q32.3 deletion syndrome with autism. Am J Med Genet A. Feb 15 2005;133(1):99-100. [Medline].

  261. Mesibov GB. Social skills training with verbal autistic adolescents and adults: a program model. J Autism Dev Disord. Dec 1984;14(4):395-404. [Medline].

  262. Miller MT, Strömland K, Gillberg C, Johansson M, Nilsson EW. The puzzle of autism: an ophthalmologic contribution. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1998;96:369-85; discussion 385-7. [Medline].

  263. Minderaa RB, Anderson GM, Volkmar FR, Akkerhuis GW, Cohen DJ. Noradrenergic and adrenergic functioning in autism. Biol Psychiatry. Aug 15 1994;36(4):237-41. [Medline].

  264. Minshew NJ, Meyer J, Goldstein G. Abstract reasoning in autism: a dissociation between concept formation and concept identification. Neuropsychology. Jul 2002;16(3):327-34. [Medline].

  265. Minshew NJ, Sweeney J, Luna B. Autism as a selective disorder of complex information processing and underdevelopment of neocortical systems. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7 Suppl 2:S14-5. [Medline].

  266. MJ Powers & Co. Secretin update. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Alerts. 2000;Available at: http://www.alertpubs.com. [Full Text].

  267. MJ Powers & Co. Transdermal secretin. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Alerts. 2000;Available at: http://www.alertpubs.com. [Full Text].

  268. Modahl C, Green L, Fein D, Morris M, Waterhouse L, Feinstein C, et al. Plasma oxytocin levels in autistic children. Biol Psychiatry. Feb 15 1998;43(4):270-7. [Medline].

  269. Mudford O. Auditory integration training: recent UK study. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Vol 4. 2000:337-338.

  270. Mudford OC, Cross BA, Breen S, Cullen C, Reeves D, Gould J, et al. Auditory integration training for children with autism: no behavioral benefits detected. Am J Ment Retard. Mar 2000;105(2):118-29. [Medline].

  271. Muller RA, Courchesne E. Autism's home in the brain. Neurology. 2000;54:270.

  272. Murakami JW, Courchesne E, Press GA, Yeung-Courchesne R, Hesselink JR. Reduced cerebellar hemisphere size and its relationship to vermal hypoplasia in autism. Arch Neurol. Jun 1989;46(6):689-94. [Medline].

  273. Nally B, Houlton B, Ralph S. The management of television and video by parents of children with autism. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Vol 4. 2000:331-337.

  274. Navarro F, Gomez-Ferrer C, Canteras M. Fluctuating asymmetry and obstetric complications in autism. 1. Revista de Psiquiatria Infanto-Juvenil; 1996:6-13.

  275. Nelson KB. The neurologically impaired child and alleged malpractice at birth. Neurol Clin. May 1999;17(2):283-93. [Medline].

  276. Nelson KB, Grether JK, Croen LA. Neuropeptides and neurotrophins in neonatal blood of children with autism, mental retrdation, or cerebral palsy. Neurology. 2000;54 (Suppl3):A247.

  277. Neville BG, Harkness WF, Cross JH, Cass HC, Burch VC, Lees JA, et al. Surgical treatment of severe autistic regression in childhood epilepsy. Pediatr Neurol. Feb 1997;16(2):137-40. [Medline].

  278. Newschaffer CJ, Cole SR. Risk factors for autism---perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history, and socioeconomic status. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2005;161:926-928.

  279. Newschaffer CJ, Falb MD, Gurney JG. National autism prevalence trends from United States special education data. Pediatrics. Mar 2005;115(3):e277-82. [Medline].

  280. Nicolson R, Awad G, Sloman L. An open trial of risperidone in young autistic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Apr 1998;37(4):372-6. [Medline].

  281. Novotny S, Hollander E, Allen A, Mosovich S, Aronowitz B, Cartwright C, et al. Increased growth hormone response to sumatriptan challenge in adult autistic disorders. Psychiatry Res. May 15 2000;94(2):173-7. [Medline].

  282. Ornitz EM, Atwell CW, Kaplan AR, Westlake JR. Brain-stem dysfunction in autism. Results of vestibular stimulation. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Oct 1985;42(10):1018-25. [Medline].

  283. Overall JE, Campbell M. Behavioral assessment of psychopathology in children: infantile autism. J Clin Psychol. Sep 1988;44(5):708-16. [Medline].

  284. Owley T, Cook EH, Jr., Volkmar F. The current status of secretin in autistic disorder. AACAP (American Acadmay of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) News. May/June 2002;33 (3):108-109.

  285. Owley T, Steele E, Corsello C, Risi S, McKaig K, Lord C, et al. A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Secretin for the Treatment of Autistic Disorder. MedGenMed. Oct 6 1999;E2. [Medline].

  286. Panksepp J. A neurochemical theory of autism. Trends in Neurosciences. 1979;2:174-179.

  287. Park RJ, Bolton PF. Pervasive developmental disorder and obstetric complications in children andadolescents with tuberous sclerosis. Autism. Sep 2001;5(3):237-48. [Medline].

  288. Pennington BF, Ozonoff S. Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Jan 1996;37(1):51-87. [Medline].

  289. Percy A, Gillberg C, Hagberg B, Witt-Engerstrom I. Rett syndrome and the autistic disorders. Neurol Clin. Aug 1990;8(3):659-76. [Medline].

  290. Perez-Pena R. Autistic youth is charged in death of baby. New York Times: December 19, 1994:B1, B3.

  291. Piven J, Arndt S. The cerebellum and autism. Neurology. Feb 1995;45(2):398-402. [Medline].

  292. Piven J, Arndt S, Bailey J, Havercamp S, Andreasen NC, Palmer P. An MRI study of brain size in autism. Am J Psychiatry. Aug 1995;152(8):1145-9. [Medline].

  293. Piven J, Bailey J, Ranson BJ, Arndt S. No difference in hippocampus volume detected on magnetic resonance imaging in autistic individuals. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 1998;28(2):105-10. [Medline].

  294. Plioplys AV. Autism: electroencephalogram abnormalities and clinical improvement with valproic acid. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. Feb 1994;148(2):220-2. [Medline].

  295. Potenza MN, Holmes JP, Kanes SJ, McDougle CJ. Olanzapine treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with pervasive developmental disorders: an open-label pilot study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. Feb 1999;19(1):37-44. [Medline].

  296. Potenza MN, McDougle CJ. The role of serotonin in autism-spectrum disorders. CNS Spectrums. 1997;2 (5):25-42.

  297. Poustka F, Lisch S. Autistic behaviour domains and their relation to self-injurious behaviour. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1993;56(2):69-73. [Medline].

  298. Poustka F, Lisch S, Rühl D, Sacher A, Schmötzer G, Werner K. The standardized diagnosis of autism, Autism Diagnostic Interview- Revised: interrater reliability of the German form of the interview. Psychopathology. 1996;29(3):145-53. [Medline].

  299. Quill K. Teaching children with autism: strategies to enhance communication with socialization. Albany, NY: Delmar Publisher; 1995.

  300. Quinn B, Malone A. Pervasive developmental disorder. An altered perspective. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 2000.

  301. Rankin K. Growing up severely autistic. They call me Gabriel. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 2000.

  302. Rapin I. Autism in search of a home in the brain. Neurology. Mar 23 1999;52(5):902-4. [Medline].

  303. Rapin I. Disorders of higher cerebral function in preschool children. Second of two parts. Am J Dis Child. Nov 1988;142(11):1178-82. [Medline].

  304. Richer J. Syndromes of acquired autism. Association for Child Psychology and Psychiatry Newsletter. 1989;11(2):33-34.

  305. Richman S. Raising a child with autism. A guide to applied behavior analysis for parents. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 2000.

  306. Riddle MA, Bernstein GA, Cook EH, Leonard HL, March JS, Swanson JM. Anxiolytics, adrenergic agents, and naltrexone. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. May 1999;38(5):546-56. [Medline].

  307. Rimland B. Comments on "Secretin and autism: a two-part clinical investigation" by M.G. Chez et al. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2000;30(2):95; discussion 97-8. [Medline].

  308. Rimland B. Secretin treatment for autism. N Engl J Med. Apr 20 2000;342(16):1216-7; discussion 1218. [Medline].

  309. Rimland B. Secretin: real therapeutic potential (response). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. Feb 2000;30(2):113; discussion 113-4. [Medline].

  310. Ritvo ER, Freeman BJ, Scheibel AB, Duong T, Robinson H, Guthrie D, et al. Lower Purkinje cell counts in the cerebella of four autistic subjects: initial findings of the UCLA-NSAC Autopsy Research Report. Am J Psychiatry. Jul 1986;143(7):862-6. [Medline].

  311. Ritvo ER, Mason-Brothers A, Freeman BJ, Pingree C, Jenson WR, McMahon WM, et al. The UCLA-University of Utah epidemiologic survey of autism: the etiologic role of rare diseases. Am J Psychiatry. Dec 1990;147(12):1614-21. [Medline].

  312. Roazen P. The rise and fall of Bruno Bettelheim. Psychohist Rev. Spring 1992;20(3):221-50. [Medline].

  313. Rogers SJ, Bennetto L, McEvoy R, Pennington BF. Imitation and pantomime in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Child Dev. Oct 1996;67(5):2060-73. [Medline].

  314. Rogers SJ, DiLalla DL. Age of symptom onset in young children with pervasive developmental disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Nov 1990;29(6):863-72. [Medline].

  315. Rojahn J, Tasse MJ, Sturmey P. The Stereotyped Behavior Scale for adolescents and adults with mental retardation. Am J Ment Retard. Sep 1997;102(2):137-46. [Medline].

  316. Rossi PG, Parmeggiani A, Bach V, Santucci M, Visconti P. EEG features and epilepsy in patients with autism. Brain Dev. May-Jun 1995;17(3):169-74. [Medline].

  317. Rothenberger A. Psychopharmacological treatment of self-injurious behavior in individuals with autism. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1993;56(2):99-104. [Medline].

  318. Rothenberger A. Self-injurious behaviour (SIB)--from definition to human rights. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1993;56(2):65-7. [Medline].

  319. Roux S, Bruneau N, Garreau B, Guérin P, Adrien JL, Dansart P, et al. Bioclinical profiles of autism and other developmental disorders using a multivariate statistical approach. Biol Psychiatry. Dec 15 1997;42(12):1148-56. [Medline].

  320. Rumsey JM, Ernst M. Functional neuroimaging of autistic disorders. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2000;6(3):171-9. [Medline].

  321. Rutter M. Aetiology of autism: findings and questions. J Intellect Disabil Res. Apr 2005;49(Pt 4):231-8. [Medline].

  322. Rutter M. Autism research: lessons from the past and prospects for the future. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2005;35(2):241-57. [Medline].

  323. Rutter M. Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning. Acta Paediatr. Jan 2005;94(1):2-15. [Medline].

  324. Sahota PK, Miles JH, Wang CH. Sleep disorders in children with autism. Neurology. 1997;48 (3):A258.

  325. Saitoh O, Courchesne E, Egaas B, Lincoln AJ, Schreibman L. Cross-sectional area of the posterior hippocampus in autistic patients with cerebellar and corpus callosum abnormalities. Neurology. Feb 1995;45(2):317-24. [Medline].

  326. Sallustro F, Atwell CW. Body rocking, head banging, and head rolling in normal children. J Pediatr. Oct 1978;93(4):704-8. [Medline].

  327. Samson K. New studies shed light on brain changes in early autism. Neurology Today. 2002;2 (8):1, 18, 19.

  328. Sanchez LE, Campbell M, Small AM, Cueva JE, Armenteros JL, Adams PB. A pilot study of clomipramine in young autistic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Apr 1996;35(4):537-44. [Medline].

  329. Sandler AD, Bodfish JW. Placebo effects in autism: lessons from secretin. J Dev Behav Pediatr. Oct 2000;21(5):347-50. [Medline].

  330. Sandler AD, Sutton KA, DeWeese J, Girardi MA, Sheppard V, Bodfish JW. Lack of benefit of a single dose of synthetic human secretin in the treatment of autism and pervasive developmental disorder. N Engl J Med. Dec 9 1999;341(24):1801-6. [Medline].

  331. Schifter T, Hoffman JM, Hatten HP Jr, Hanson MW, Coleman RE, DeLong GR. Neuroimaging in infantile autism. J Child Neurol. Apr 1994;9(2):155-61. [Medline].

  332. Schopler E, Mesibov GB. Social behavior in autism. NY: Plenum; 1992.

  333. Schopler E, Van Bourgondien ME, Bristol MM. Preschool Issues in Autism. NY: Plenum Press; 1993.

  334. Schreibman L. Diagnostic features of autism. J Child Neurol. 1988;3 Suppl:S57-64. [Medline].

  335. Schutt CE. Seretin and autism: a clue but not a cure. National Alliance for Autism Research Newsletter. 1998;21-25.

  336. Siegel B, Pliner C, Eschler J, Elliott GR. How children with autism are diagnosed: difficulties in identification of children with multiple developmental delays. J Dev Behav Pediatr. Aug 1988;9(4):199-204. [Medline].

  337. Siegel BV Jr, Asarnow R, Tanguay P, Call JD, Abel L, Ho A, et al. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism and attention in adults with a history of childhood autism. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. Fall 1992;4(4):406-14. [Medline].

  338. Siegel BV Jr, Nuechterlein KH, Abel L, Wu JC, Buchsbaum MS. Glucose metabolic correlates of continuous performance test performance in adults with a history of infantile autism, schizophrenics, and controls. Schizophr Res. Sep 1995;17(1):85-94. [Medline].

  339. Silva RR, Malone RP, Anderson LT, Shay J, Campbell M. Haloperidol withdrawal and weight changes in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1993;29(2):287-91. [Medline].

  340. Simon N. Autism's home in the brain. Neurology. Jan 11 2000;54(1):269-70. [Medline].

  341. Singer HS. Pediatric movement disorders: new developments. Mov Disord. 1998;13 (Suppl 2):17.

  342. Skjeldal OH, Sponheim E, Ganes T, Jellum E, Bakke S. Childhood autism: the need for physical investigations. Brain Dev. Jun 1998;20(4):227-33. [Medline].

  343. Smith B, Chung MC, Vostanis P. The path to care in autism: is it better now?. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 1994;24(5):551-63. [Medline].

  344. Smith DC. Assistive technology: funding options and strategies. Mental and Physical Disabilities Law Report. 1998;22 (1):115-123.

  345. Smith DE, Miller SD, Stewart M, Walter TL, McConnell JV. Conductive hearing loss in autistic, learning-disabled, and normal children. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 1988;18(1):53-65. [Medline].

  346. Smith MD. Treatment of pica in an adult disabled by autism by differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. Sep 1987;18(3):285-8. [Medline].

  347. Sobesky WE, Taylor AK, Pennington BF, Bennetto L, Porter D, Riddle J, et al. Molecular/clinical correlations in females with fragile X. Am J Med Genet. Aug 9 1996;64(2):340-5. [Medline].

  348. Sparks BF, Friedman SD, Shaw DW, Aylward EH, Echelard D, Artru AA, et al. Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology. Jul 23 2002;59(2):184-92. [Medline].

  349. Sponheim E, Skjeldal O. Autism and related disorders: epidemiological findings in a Norwegian study using ICD-10 diagnostic criteria. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1998;28(3):217-27. [Medline].

  350. Starr EM, Berument SK, Tomlins M, Papanikolaou K, Rutter M. Brief Report: Autism in Individuals with Down Syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord. Oct 2005;35(5):665-73. [Medline].

  351. Steffenburg S, Gillberg CL, Steffenburg U, Kyllerman M. Autism in Angelman syndrome: a population-based study. Pediatr Neurol. Feb 1996;14(2):131-6. [Medline].

  352. Steffenburg S, Steffenburg U, Gillberg C. Autism spectrum disorders in children with active epilepsy and learning disability: comorbidity, pre- and perinatal background, and seizure characteristics. Dev Med Child Neurol. Nov 2003;45(11):724-30. [Medline].

  353. Stein DJ, Hollander E. Obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. Jun 1995;56(6):265-6. [Medline].

  354. Stern JS, Robertson MM. Tics associated with autistic and pervasive developmental disorders. Neurol Clin. May 1997;15(2):345-55. [Medline].

  355. Stone WL, Hoffman EL, Lewis SE, Ousley OY. Early recognition of autism. Parental reports vs clinical observation. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. Feb 1994;148(2):174-9. [Medline].

  356. Stone WL, Lemanek KL, Fishel PT, Fernandez MC, Altemeier WA. Play and imitation skills in the diagnosis of autism in young children. Pediatrics. Aug 1990;86(2):267-72. [Medline].

  357. Sturmey P. Assessing the functions of aberrant behaviors: a review of psychometric instruments. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1994;24(3):293-304. [Medline].

  358. Sussman F. More than words: helping parents promote communication and social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder. Ontario, Canada: The Hanen Centre; 1999.

  359. Sverd J. Tourette syndrome and autistic disorder: a significant relationship. Am J Med Genet. May 1 1991;39(2):173-9. [Medline].

  360. Sverd J, Montero G, Gurevich N. Brief report: cases for an association between Tourette syndrome, autistic disorder, and schizophrenia-like disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1993;23(2):407-13. [Medline].

  361. Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, Shekhar A, McDougle CJ. The amygdala and related structures in the pathophysiology of autism. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. Mar 2002;71(3):449-55. [Medline].

  362. Szatmari P, Archer L, Fisman S, Streiner DL. Parent and teacher agreement in the assessment of pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. Dec 1994;24(6):703-17. [Medline].

  363. Tallal P, Miller SL, Bedi G, Byma G, Wang X, Nagarajan SS, et al. Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science. Jan 5 1996;271(5245):81-4. [Medline].

  364. Tanguay PE, Robertson J, Derrick A. A dimensional classification of autism spectrum disorder by social communication domains. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Mar 1998;37(3):271-7. [Medline].

  365. Taylor B, Miller E, Farrington CP, Petropoulos MC, Favot-Mayaud I, Li J, et al. Autism and measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological evidence for a causal association. Lancet. Jun 12 1999;353(9169):2026-9. [Medline].

  366. Teitelbaum P, Teitelbaum O, Nye J, Fryman J, Maurer RG. Movement analysis in infancy may be useful for early diagnosis of autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Nov 10 1998;95(23):13982-7. [Medline].

  367. Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group. Definitions and classification of tic disorders. Arch Neurol. Oct 1993;50(10):1013-6. [Medline].

  368. Tranebjaerg L, Kure P. Prevalence of fra(X) and other specific diagnoses in autistic individuals in a Danish county. American Journal of Medical Genetics. 1991;39:212-214. [Medline].

  369. Treffert DA. The savant syndrome and autistic disorder. CNS Spectrums. 1999;12 (4):57-60.

  370. Trevarthen C, Aitken K, Papoudi D. Children with Autism. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 1998.

  371. Tuchman RF. Acquired epileptiform aphasia. Semin Pediatr Neurol. Jun 1997;4(2):93-101. [Medline].

  372. Tuchman RF. [Language disorders: is EEG clinically useful?]. Rev Neurol. May 1997;25(141):744-9. [Medline].

  373. Tuchman RF, Rapin I. Regression in pervasive developmental disorders: seizures and epileptiform electroencephalogram correlates. Pediatrics. Apr 1997;99(4):560-6. [Medline].

  374. Turner RA, Altemus M, Enos T, Cooper B, McGuinness T. Preliminary research on plasma oxytocin in normal cycling women: investigating emotion and interpersonal distress. Psychiatry. Summer 1999;62(2):97-113. [Medline].

  375. Verdoux H. Perinatal risk factors for schizophrenia: how specific are they?. Curr Psychiatry Rep. Jun 2004;6(3):162-7. [Medline].

  376. Vermeulen P. I am special. Introducing children and young people to their autistic spectrum disorder. Philadelphia, Pa: Jessica Kingsley Publisher; 2000.

  377. Volkmar FR, Cicchetti DV, Dykens E, Sparrow SS, Leckman JF, Cohen DJ. An evaluation of the Autism Behavior Checklist. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 1988;18(1):81-97. [Medline].

  378. Volkmar FR, Klin A, Siegel B, Szatmari P, Lord C, Campbell M, et al. Field trial for autistic disorder in DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry. Sep 1994;151(9):1361-7. [Medline].

  379. Vostanis P, Nicholls J, Harrington R. Maternal expressed emotion in conduct and emotional disorders of childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Feb 1994;35(2):365-76. [Medline].

  380. Vostanis P, Smith B, Chung MC, Corbett J. Early detection of childhood autism: a review of screening instruments and rating scales. Child Care Health Dev. May-Jun 1994;20(3):165-77. [Medline].

  381. Wade N. First gene for social behavior identified whiskery mice. C4. New York Times: September 9, 1997.

  382. Wahlstrom J, Steffenburg S, Hellgren L, Gillberg C. Chromosome findings in twins with early-onset autistic disorder. Am J Med Genet. Jan 1989;32(1):19-21. [Medline].

  383. Walker HA. A dermatoglyphic study of autistic patients. J Autism Child Schizophr. Mar 1977;7(1):11-21. [Medline].

  384. Wang Z, Yu G, Cascio C, Liu Y, Gingrich B, Insel TR. Dopamine D2 receptor-mediated regulation of partner preferences in female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster): a mechanism for pair bonding?. Behav Neurosci. Jun 1999;113(3):602-11. [Medline].

  385. Warren RP, Singh VK. Elevated serotonin levels in autism: association with the major histocompatibility complex. Neuropsychobiology. 1996;34(2):72-5. [Medline].

  386. Webb EV, Lobo S, Hervas A, Scourfield J, Fraser WI. The changing prevalence of autistic disorder in a Welsh health district. Dev Med Child Neurol. Mar 1997;39(3):150-2. [Medline].

  387. Wenar C, Ruttenberg BA, Kalish-Weiss B, Wolf EG. The development of normal and autistic children: a comparative study. J Autism Dev Disord. Sep 1986;16(3):317-33. [Medline].

  388. Wenstrom KD, Descartes M, Franklin J, Cliver SP. A five-year experience with fragile X screening of high-risk gravid women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1999;181(4):789-92. [Medline].

  389. Werner E, Dawson G, Osterling J, Dinno N. Brief report: Recognition of autism spectrum disorder before one year of age: a retrospective study based on home videotapes. J Autism Dev Disord. Apr 2000;30(2):157-62. [Medline].

  390. Wilkerson DS, Volpe AG, Dean RS, Titus JB. Perinatal complications as predictors of infantile autism. Int J Neurosci. Sep 2002;112(9):1085-98. [Medline].

  391. Williams G, King J, Cunningham M. Fetal valproate syndrome and autism: additional evidence of an association. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2001;43:202-206.

  392. Wisniewski KE, Segan SM, Miezejeski CM, Sersen EA, Rudelli RD. The Fra(X) syndrome: neurological, electrophysiological, and neuropathological abnormalities. Am J Med Genet. Feb-Mar 1991;38(2-3):476-80. [Medline].

  393. Yirmiya N, Sigman M, Freeman BJ. Comparison between diagnostic instruments for identifying high- functioning children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. Jun 1994;24(3):281-91. [Medline].

  394. Young LJ, Nilsen R, Waymire KG, MacGregor GR, Insel TR. Increased affiliative response to vasopressin in mice expressing the V1a receptor from a monogamous vole. Nature. Aug 19 1999;400(6746):766-8. [Medline].

  395. Zwaigenbaum L, Szatmari P, Jones MB. Decreased obstetric optimality in autism is a function of genetic liability to the broader autism phenotype. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1999;20 (5):398-399.

  396. Zwaigenbaum L, Szatmari P, Jones MB. Pregnancy and birth complications in autism and liability to the broader autismphenotype. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. May 2002;41(5):572-9. [Medline].

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Further Reading

Recommended readings for parents include the following:

  • Baron-Cohen S, Howlin P. Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-read: a Practical Guide for Teachers and Parents. New York, NY: Wiley; 1998.
  • Cohen S. Targeting Autism. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1998.
  • Hart CA. A Parent's Guide to Autism. New York, NY: Pocket Books; 1993.
  • Hollander E. Autism Spectrum Disorders. Volume 24 of the Medical Psychiatry Series. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2003.
  • Lovaas I. The Autistic Child: Language Development through Behavior Modification. New York, NY: Irvington Press; 1977.
  • Powers M. Children with Autism: A Parents' Guide. Bethesda, Md: Woodbine House; 2000.
  • Quill K. Teaching Children with Autism: Strategies to Enhance Communication and Socialization. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers; 1995.
  • Wing L. The Autistic Spectrum: A Parent's Guide to Understanding and Helping Your Child. London, England: Ulysses Press; 2001.

Key general references include the following:

  • Bettelheim B. The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1977.
  • Cohen DJ, Volkmar FR. Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. New York, NY: Wiley; 1996.
  • DeMyer MK. Parents and Children in Autism. Washington, DC: Winston; 1979.
  • Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Ashwal SL. Practice parameter: screening and diagnosis of autism: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society. Neurology. 2000 August 22;55(4):468-479.
  • Gillberg C, Coleman M. The Biology of the Autistic Syndromes, 3rd ed. London, England: Mac Keith Press. Clinics in Developmental Medicine Number 153/4; 2000.
  • Harris JC. Developmental Neuropsychiatry: Fundamentals. Vol 1. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 1995.
  • Harris JC. Developmental Neuropsychiatry: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Vol 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 1995.
  • Hollander E. Autism Spectrum Disorders. Volume 24 of the Medical Psychiatry Series. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2003.
  • Klin A, Volkmar FR, Sparrow SS. Asperger Syndrome. New York, NY: Guilford Publications, Inc; 2000.
  • Lovaas OI. Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987 Feb;55(1):3-9.
  • Schreibman L. Diagnostic features of autism. J Child Neurol. 1988;3(suppl)l:S57-S64.

Additional resources on autism are available at Medscape's Autism Spectrum Disorders Resource Center.

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Keywords

autism, autistic disorder, infantile autism, Kanner syndrome, Kanner's syndrome, movement abnormalities, motion anomalies, communication abnormalities, social interaction abnormalities, mental retardation, autism spectrum disorder, unspecified pervasive developmental disorder, autistic spectrum disorder, rubella, measles, mumps, Rett syndrome, Asperger syndrome, childhood disintegration disorder, Sydenham chorea, akathisia, pseudoakathisia

[ CLOSE WINDOW ]

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

James Robert Brasic, MD, MPH, Research Associate, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Russell H Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
James Robert Brasic, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, American Academy of Neurology, and Movement Disorders Society
Disclosure: Taylor and Francis Royalty Independent contractor; Wolters Kluver/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Royalty Independent contractor

Medical Editor

Carol Diane Berkowitz, MD, Executive Vice Chair, Department of Pediatrics, Professor, Harbor-University of California at Los Angeles Medical Center
Carol Diane Berkowitz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, Ambulatory Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Association, American Pediatric Society, and North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Mary L Windle, PharmD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Pfizer Inc Stock Investment from financial planner; Avanir Pharma Stock Investment from financial planner ; WebMD Salary and stock Employment and investment from financial planner

CME Editor

Carrie Sylvester, MD, MPH, Director of Education in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Professor, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Northwestern University Medical School
Carrie Sylvester, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Women's Association, American Psychiatric Association, and American Society for Adolescent Psychiatry
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Caroly Pataki, MD, Professor of Clinical Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Psychiatry, Division Chair, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Director of Training, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Residency Program, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine
Caroly Pataki, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York Academy of Sciences, and Physicians for Social Responsibility
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

 
 
HONcode

We subscribe to the
HONcode principles of the
Health On the Net Foundation

All material on this website is protected by copyright, Copyright© 1994- by Medscape.
This website also contains material copyrighted by 3rd parties.

DISCLAIMER: The content of this Website is not influenced by sponsors. The site is designed primarily for use by qualified physicians and other medical professionals. The information contained herein should NOT be used as a substitute for the advice of an appropriately qualified and licensed physician or other health care provider. The information provided here is for educational and informational purposes only. In no way should it be considered as offering medical advice. Please check with a physician if you suspect you are ill.