Alkaptonuria Clinical Presentation

  • Author: Karl S Roth, MD; Chief Editor: Bruce Buehler, MD   more...
 
Updated: Aug 19, 2011
 

History

  • Because alkaptonuria is usually autosomal recessive, a family pedigree, in all likelihood, reveals no other affected individuals. However, because many individuals are asymptomatic, the low frequency of affected family members may be due to a lack of ascertainment.
  • Despite the intrinsic biochemical defect and the expectation that all affected individuals should excrete urine that becomes black when left standing, a significant number of people with alkaptonuria do not present with this clinical finding.
  • The most common history is one of arthritic symptoms confined chiefly to the spine, hips, and knees. Virtually all people with alkaptonuria eventually experience arthritis. Onset of thoracic back pain, lumbar back pain, or both around age 30 years is frequent.
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Physical

  • Slate blue or gray discoloration may be found in the sclerae or ear cartilage.
  • Calcifications may be palpable in the discolored areas, particularly in the cartilage of the ear.
  • Joint mobility diminishes, as in osteoarthritis. Ankylosis may be present. Spontaneous fusion of one or more discs may occur, with consequent diminished spinal flexion. Joint effusions, particularly in the knee are common and range of motion may be significantly diminished.
  • Signs of aortic or mitral valvulitis may be present.
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Causes

  • Inability to convert homogentisic acid to maleylacetoacetic acid results in accumulation of the former. Homogentisic acid is subsequently converted to benzoquinone acetic acid and spontaneously polymerized. Deposition of the polymer in association with cartilage is the initiating pathophysiologic cause of the arthritis.
  • Although unproven, the deposition of polymer is assumed to also cause an inflammatory response that results in calcium deposition in affected joints.
  • Exogenous agents including quinacrine (Atabrine), carbolic acid, and hydroquinone have been reported to cause an ochronotic picture without the joint disease. All have been reversible.
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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Karl S Roth, MD  Professor and Chair, Department of Pediatrics, Creighton University School of Medicine

Karl S Roth, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Nutrition, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Clinical Nutrition, American Society of Nephrology, Association of American Medical Colleges, Medical Society of Virginia, New York Academy of Sciences, Sigma Xi, Society for Pediatric Research, and Southern Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

James Bowman, MD  Senior Scholar of Maclean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics, Professor Emeritus, Department of Pathology, University of Chicago

James Bowman, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American Society of Human Genetics, Central Society for Clinical Research, and College of American Pathologists

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Leonard G Feld, MD, PhD, MMM, FAAP  Sara H Bissell and Howard C Bissell Endowed Chair in Pediatrics, Chief Medical Officer, Levine Children's Hospital, Carolinas Medical Center

Leonard G Feld, MD, PhD, MMM, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Physician Executives, American Society of Nephrology, American Society of Pediatric Nephrology, International Society of Nephrology, and Juvenile Diabetes Foundation International

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Paul D Petry, DO, FACOP, FAAP  Consulting Staff, Freeman Pediatric Care, Freeman Health System

Paul D Petry, DO, FACOP, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Osteopathy, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Osteopathic Pediatricians, and American Osteopathic Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Bruce Buehler, MD  Professor, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Director RSA, University of Nebraska Medical Center

Bruce Buehler, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association on Mental Retardation, American College of Medical Genetics, American College of Physician Executives, American Medical Association, and Nebraska Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

  1. Garrod AE. The incidence of alkaptonuria: a study in chemical individuality. 1902 [classical article]. Yale J Biol Med. Jul-Aug 2002;75(4):221-31. [Medline].

  2. Oexie K, Engel K, Tinschert S, et al. Three-generational alkaptonuria in a non-consanguineous family. J Inherit Metab Dis. Dec/2008;Epub:Epub.

  3. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for phenylketonuria (PKU): US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation recommendation. Ann Fam Med. Mar-Apr 2008;6(2):166. [Medline].

  4. Peker E, Yonden Z, Sogut S. From darkening urine to early diagnosis of alkaptonuria. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. Nov-Dec 2008;74(6):700. [Medline].

  5. de Haas V, Carbasius Weber EC, de Klerk JB, et al. The success of dietary protein restriction in alkaptonuria patients is age-dependent. J Inherit Metab Dis. Dec 1998;21(8):791-8. [Medline].

  6. Ffolkes LV, Brull D, Krywawych S, Hayward M, Hughes SE. Aortic stenosis in cardiovascular ochronosis. J Clin Pathol. Jan 2007;60(1):92-3. [Medline].

  7. Fisher AA, Davis MW. Alkaptonuric ochronosis with aortic valve and joint replacements and femoral fracture: a case report and literature review. Clin Med Res. Nov 2004;2(4):209-15. [Medline].

  8. Keller JM, Macaulay W, Nercessian OA, Jaffe IA. New developments in ochronosis: review of the literature. Rheumatol Int. Mar 2005;25(2):81-5. [Medline].

  9. Levine HD, Parisi AF, Holdsworth DE, Cohn LH. Aortic valve replacement for ochronosis of the aortic valve. Chest. Oct 1978;74(4):466-7. [Medline].

  10. Lorenzini S, Mannoni A, Selvi E. Alkaptonuria. N Engl J Med. Apr 3 2003;348(14):1408; author reply 1408. [Medline].

  11. Mayatepek E, Kallas K, Anninos A, Muller E. Effects of ascorbic acid and low-protein diet in alkaptonuria. Eur J Pediatr. Oct 1998;157(10):867-8. [Medline].

  12. O'Brien W, La Du BN, Bunim JJ. Biochemical, pathological and clinical aspects of alcaptonuria, ochronosis and ochronotic arthropathy: review of the world literature (1584-1962). Am J Med. 1963;34:813-38.

  13. Perry MB, Suwannarat P, Furst GP, Gahl WA, Gerber LH. Musculoskeletal findings and disability in alkaptonuria. J Rheumatol. Nov 2006;33(11):2280-5. [Medline].

  14. Phornphutkul C, Introne WJ, Perry MB, et al. Natural history of alkaptonuria. N Engl J Med. Dec 26 2002;347(26):2111-21. [Medline].

  15. Suwannarat P, O'Brien K, Perry MB, et al. Use of nitisinone in patients with alkaptonuria. Metabolism. Jun 2005;54(6):719-28. [Medline].

  16. Vavuranakis M, Triantafillidi H, Stefanadis C, Toutouzas P. Aortic stenosis and coronary artery disease caused by alkaptonuria, a rare genetic metabolic syndrome. Cardiology. 1998;90(4):302-4. [Medline].

  17. Watts RW, Watts RA. Alkaptonuria: a 60-yr follow-up. Rheumatology (Oxford). Feb 2007;46(2):358-9. [Medline].

  18. Wolff JA, Barshop B, Nyhan WL, et al. Effects of ascorbic acid in alkaptonuria: alterations in benzoquinone acetic acid and an ontogenic effect in infancy. Pediatr Res. Aug 1989;26(2):140-4. [Medline].

 
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Upon microscopic examination, amber-colored, oval-shaped structures are detected in the mid-to-upper dermal tissues (hematoxylin and eosin, original magnification X40).
 
 
 
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