eMedicine Specialties > Pediatrics: General Medicine > Infectious Disease

Nocardiosis

Nicholas John Bennett, MB, BCh, PhD, Fellow in Pediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Upstate Medical University
Joseph Domachowske, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University; Rosemary Johann-Liang, MD, Medical Officer, Infectious Diseases and Pediatrics, Division of Special Pathogens and Immunological Drug Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration

Updated: Aug 28, 2009

Introduction

Background

Nocardia are weakly gram-positive, filamentous bacteria found worldwide in soils. Human disease from this microbe was first described by Eppinger in 1890, after bovine disease was described by Nocard in 1888. Pathogenic Nocardia are members of the family Nocardiaceae, the aerobic actinomycetes. Nocardia asteroides is the principal cause of systemic nocardiosis in the United States. Nocardia pseudobrasiliensis, Nocardia otitidis-caviarum (formerly Nocardia caviae), Nocardia farcinica, Nocardia nova, and Nocardia transvalensis have also been rarely associated with human systemic disease.

Well-formed hepatic granuloma from a patient with brucellosis.

Two newly described species have been associated with disease in humans: Nocardia abscessus, from soft-tissue abscesses,² and Nocardia africana, from respiratory secretions of patients with pneumonia in the Sudan.³ Most recently, Nocardia ignorata, a new agent of human nocardiosis, was isolated from respiratory specimens in Europe and soil samples from Kuwait.⁴ Case reports of Nocardia cyriacigeorgica occurring in the United States have been published, with several infections being retrospectively identified from stored samples.

Molecular DNA hybridization techniques (usually involving the 16S ribosomal RNA [rRNA]) have better characterized the Nocardia species; this identification is useful in identifying antibiotic resistance patterns. Several of the species mentioned above (N nova, N farcinica, N abscessus, N cyriacigeorgica) had been considered as N asteroides isolates in some reports.⁵

Nocardiosis is an acute, subacute, or chronic suppurative infection caused by Nocardia. It has a pronounced tendency to remission and exacerbation. Infections are localized or disseminated. Localized cutaneous or lymphocutaneous infections usually occur after contamination of an abrasion, resulting in cutaneous or lymphocutaneous abscess. In children with immunocompetence, systemic spread from the primary skin site is extremely rare.

Disseminated and fulminant disease mainly occurs in immunocompromised hosts (among persons with deficient cell-mediated immunity) with underlying illnesses, such as chronic granulomatous disease or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and in children undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy, bone marrow transplantation, or prolonged glucocorticoid treatment.

Nocardiosis has also been associated with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, tuberculosis and other mycobacterial diseases, and interleukin 12 deficiency. Inhalation of the free-living organism is the likely route of infection. The primary disease occurs in the pulmonary system and may mimic tuberculous, staphylococcal, or mycotic infections. Hematogenous dissemination may occur to all organs of the body. The brain, kidneys, and liver are the most common metastatic sites.

Interestingly, Nocardia species have been found to produce effective antibacterial agents, including one agent (nargencin) that shows promise against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus.⁶ Nocardia lactamdurans has also been found to produce a cephamycin under the right conditions.⁷

Pathophysiology

Introduction of N asteroides via the respiratory tract results in pulmonary lesions that most often manifest as multiple abscesses. Nocardia abscesses are characteristically confluent, with little evidence of encapsulation, which probably accounts for the ready dissemination from the initial pulmonary focus. This organism also evades the host's bactericidal mechanisms. Host neutrophil mobilization can inhibit Nocardia but does not kill them. Cell-mediated immunity triggered by activated macrophages and the induction of a T-cell population capable of direct lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity are necessary to kill Nocardia. Infection progresses after the initial inhibition by neutrophils unless antimicrobial therapy or cytotoxic lymphocytes take over.

Nocardia exhibit specific organ tropisms. Log-phase cells of Nocardia, which contain specific cell wall mycolic acids, are more virulent and may influence the ability of nocardiae to localize in certain tissues, such as the brain. Nocardial metastasis manifests as multiple abscesses without granules in different organs. In patients with poor neutrophil activity or impaired cell-mediated immunity, fulminant pulmonary or systemic nocardiosis is an uncommon but opportunistic infection. It is curable but has a high mortality rate (exceeding 50% in some reports), probably because of delayed diagnosis and treatment. A high index of suspicion, followed by aggressive diagnosis and treatment, is necessary for optimal results.

Frequency

United States

Nocardiosis is sporadic and person-to-person spread is not well documented. Rare outbreaks have been associated with contamination of the hospital environment. Incidence estimates vary in immunocompromised populations. In patients who undergo renal transplant, the incidence rate is 0-20%. In patients who undergo bone marrow transplant, the incidence rate is 0.3%, and in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, the incidence rate is 2.8%.

Higher rates of infection are observed in the hotter, drier states, perhaps because of easier entry of infectious organisms into the lungs from dust blown into the air.

International

Nocardiosis occurs sporadically worldwide.

Mortality/Morbidity

Death occurs from sepsis, overwhelming pneumonia, or brain abscess, rather than the untreated underlying disease. Mortality is increased in patients with acute infection and in those with disseminated disease involving 2 or more contiguous organs or the CNS. Mortality is also increased in patients taking corticosteroids or antineoplastic agents.

Race

No racial predilection is known.

Age

No age predilection is recognized.

Clinical

History

• Generalized nocardiosis
  • In patients with cutaneous disease, elicit history of trauma at the site of mycetoma (eg, scrape from thorn), firm subcutaneous abscesses (eg, cat scratch, insect bite, open cut), and/or cervical adenitis (eg, dental injury). Signs of infection tracking along lymph node chains or a draining sinus may be present.
  • Slowly progressive joint swelling and pain, with or without fever, may occur, resulting in Nocardia septic arthritis if the trauma was deep (eg, puncture from rooster's claw).
  • The pulmonary course begins with nonspecific complaints, including fever (night sweats), malaise, chest or abdominal pain (may be sudden onset), persistent cough (rarely hemoptysis), and anorexia.
• Disseminated nocardiosis
  • If dissemination occurs from a pulmonary infection, a constellation of acute and chronic symptoms develops, ranging from headache to obtundation (CNS), pyuria (kidneys), and right upper abdominal pain (liver). CNS infection may have no signs or symptoms or may present with focal neurological deficits, seizures, and coma.
  • Children at risk for nocardiosis as an opportunistic infection include patients with the following:
    • Lymphoreticular neoplasms
    • Chronic pulmonary disorders (most notably alveolar proteinosis)
    • Prolonged corticosteroid usage
    • Systemic lupus erythematosus
    • Severe asthma
    • Chronic granulomatous disease
    • Children with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
  • Patients undergoing transplant for the following are at risk:
    • Renal
    • Cardiac
    • Liver
    • Bone marrow

Physical

• Subcutaneous abscesses are palpable at the site of trauma and generally feel firmer than fluctuant. Contiguous lymph nodes may indicate infection tracking along lymphatics.
• A lung examination may reveal diffuse or localized abnormal breath sounds.
• Mild-to-severe respiratory distress that progresses to respiratory failure may occur.
• Disseminated miliary appearance can occur with diffuse organ abscesses that mimic miliary tuberculosis.
• Clinical manifestations may include the following:
  • Bronchopneumonia
  • Lobar pneumonia
  • Necrotizing pneumonia
  • Persistent meningitis
  • Cerebral abscesses
  • Peritonitis
  • Intra-abdominal abscesses
  • Hematogenous endophthalmitis
  • Sinusitis
  • Endocarditis
  • Aortitis
  • Mediastinitis
  • Pyelonephritic abscesses
  • Septic arthritis

Causes

• Nocardia are usually found in soil and dust, and infection results from inoculation of a wound or inhalation. Person-to-person transmission has not been reported, and Nocardia are not commensal in humans or animals.
• Nosocomial cases have been reported. In some cases, N asteroides were detected in the dust and air of the hospital unit.

Differential Diagnoses

Actinomycosis
Aspergillosis
Tuberculosis

Other Problems to Be Considered

Fungal infections
Cerebral Abscess
Malignancy

Workup

Laboratory Studies

• Gram staining is indicated in nocardiosis.
  • Directly examine clinical materials (eg, sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage, cerebral spinal fluid, pus) by Gram stains and acid-fast stains (modified Ziehl-Neelsen stains). Delicately branched, weakly gram-positive, variably acid-fast bacilli with tendency to fragment are indicative of Nocardia.
  • Use methenamine-silver stains for demonstrating the organisms in tissue specimens.
  • Inoculate clinical material, including blood specimens, on brain-heart infusion media or Sabouraud agar without antibiotics. N asteroides and N braziliensis are obligate aerobes, thermophilic, and slow growing. Colonies take 1-2 weeks to develop and are usually waxy then chalky in appearance.
• Serological diagnosis is not readily available.
• Cultures typically grow within 3-5 days on blood or chocolate agar, but cultures from normally sterile sites should be maintained for 3 weeks in a liquid medium.

Imaging Studies

• Generalized infections
  • Chest radiographic findings vary and include fluffy infiltrates, scattered nodules, and confluent lobar infiltrates progressing to complete consolidation and cavitation.
  • Chest CT scanning may be necessary to visualize the extent of disease and to rule out empyema.
  • CT scanning with contrast or MRI may be necessary to visualize cerebral abscesses.
• Disseminated nocardiosis
  • Perform CT scanning with contrast or MRI to rule out cerebral abscesses. Because of the high incidence of spread to the brain, all patients with pulmonary nocardiosis should have a neuroimaging study, even in the absence of CNS symptoms. Lesions should show ring-enhancement with contrast and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR). Early lesions, or those present during treatment with steroids, may not enhance and may mimic infarction.
  • Use 2-dimensional echocardiography to rule out vegetations.
  • Perform abdominal and/or pelvic sonography and CT scanning to rule out intra-abdominal, hepatic, splenic, or renal abscesses.

Procedures

• A bronchoalveolar lavage is recommended in immunocompromised individuals in whom nocardiosis is suspected because mortality can exceed 50% without rapid diagnosis and treatment.

Treatment

Medical Care

• Sulfa-based therapy is recommended for nocardiosis. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim) or a sulfonamide (sulfadiazine), given intravenously in high doses, is the treatment of choice.⁸
• Linezolid has a growing literature in support of its use in combination and even monotherapy for treatment of Nocardia infections. It has good CNS penetration, is available in an oral form, and is the only antibiotic known to be active against all strains of Nocardia.
• Additional concurrent therapy with an aminoglycoside (amikacin, gentamicin) plus ceftriaxone benefits patients with fulminant disease.
• Other medications for the pediatric age group include extended-spectrum cephalosporins, imipenem/meropenem, ampicillin, and amoxicillin-clavulanate. Tetracycline derivatives used in treatment include minocycline or doxycycline (in a child >8 y with sulfa hypersensitivity).
• Patients who are immunocompetent with lymphocutaneous disease are usually treated for 6-12 weeks. Therapy includes incision and drainage of abscesses. Patients with immunocompromising conditions are treated for at least 3 months after clinical cure (usually up to 1 y of therapy).
• Closely monitor patients with AIDS and CNS disease; relapse can occur years after therapy.

Surgical Care

• Surgical therapy to drain abscesses is usually helpful (and potentially diagnostic); however, brain abscesses may respond to antimicrobial treatment without surgery. The risks of an invasive neurosurgical procedure should be balanced against the benefits of a diagnostic biopsy or potentially therapeutic drainage.

Consultations

• A multidisciplinary team in a pediatric ICU setting should manage fulminant nocardiosis.
• Consultation with a pediatric infectious diseases specialist is also recommended.
• Neurosurgery or interventional radiology may need to be consulted to obtain biopsies.

Medication

Antibiotics

The mainstay of nocardiosis therapy are sulfa-based antibiotics (eg, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) given intravenously in high doses. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole has shown less efficacy as a single agent in some AIDS-related nocardial infections. The single best regimen for treatment has not been established, and antibiotic resistance testing is recommended to tailor therapies to the specific strain infecting the patient. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amikacin, and either ceftriaxone or imipenem are a reasonable combination of drugs for an initial empiric therapy prior to the results of susceptibility testing.

The use of linezolid to treat resistant or severe infection has been documented and shows promise.⁹ Linezolid has been tested in vitro and has been shown to be the first antimicrobial agent to be active against all Nocardia species. It has good CNS penetration, does not require adjustment for renal or liver disease, has few drug interactions (especially with immunosuppressive medications), and has been shown to work as monotherapy against Nocardia. It is also available with excellent bioavailability in an oral form and may become a first-line therapy for Nocardia infection.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Septra)

Inhibits bacterial growth by inhibiting synthesis of dihydrofolic acid. Doses are based on the trimethoprim component.

Dosing

Adult

160 mg (trimethoprim) and 800 mg (sulfamethoxazole) PO bid (ie, 1 double-strength tab PO bid) for 6 mo
Immunocompromise: Duration of treatment lifelong if patient has AIDS

Pediatric

<6 weeks: Not recommended
>6 weeks: 15-20 mg/kg/d IV divided q6-8h; initial IV then PO for a total of 6-12 wk (lymphocutaneous disease)
Disseminated: Continue at least 3 mo after clinical cure is achieved; usually up to 1 y, especially with CNS involvement

Interactions

May increase PT when used with warfarin (perform coagulation tests and adjust dose accordingly); coadministration with dapsone may increase blood levels of both drugs; coadministration of diuretics increases incidence of thrombocytopenia purpura in elderly persons; phenytoin levels may increase with coadministration; may potentiate effects of methotrexate in bone marrow depression; hypoglycemic response to sulfonylureas may increase with coadministration; may increase levels of zidovudine

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; megaloblastic anemia caused by folate deficiency

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Avoid in pregnancy near term (risk of kernicterus in newborn); discontinue at first appearance of rash or sign of adverse reaction; frequently obtain CBC counts; discontinue therapy if significant hematologic changes occur; goiter, diuresis, and hypoglycemia may occur with sulfonamides; prolonged IV infusions or high doses may cause bone marrow depression (if signs occur, give 5-15 mg/d leucovorin); caution in folate deficiency (eg, chronic alcoholics, elderly persons, those receiving anticonvulsant therapy, or those with malabsorption syndrome); hemolysis may occur in individuals with G-6-PD deficiency; patients with AIDS may not tolerate or respond; caution in renal or hepatic impairment (perform urinalyses and renal function tests during therapy); give fluids to prevent crystalluria and stone formation

Imipenem and cilastatin (Primaxin)

Therapy with this alternative agent often is used in combination with amikacin. For CNS nocardiosis, consider the related drug, meropenem, instead.

Dosing

Adult

250-500 mg IV q6h; not to exceed 3-4 g/d

Pediatric

60 mg/kg/d IV divided q6-8h; not to exceed 4 g/d for 6-12 wk (lymphocutaneous disease)
Disseminated: Continue at least 3 mo after clinical cure is achieved; usually up to 1 y

Interactions

Coadministration with ganciclovir may result in generalized seizures; coadministration with cyclosporine, may increase CNS effects of both agents

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Give slowly via IV over 30-60 min; pruritus, urticaria, GI symptoms, seizures, dizziness, hypotension, elevated LFT findings, and blood dyscrasias can occur; adjust dose in renal insufficiency; nausea associated with infusion can be improved by slowing the infusion rate

Amikacin (Amikin)

Used in conjunction with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or imipenem-cilastatin. Peak therapeutic levels are 20-30 mg/L, and trough levels are 5-10 mg/L.

Dosing

Adult

15 mg/kg/d IV/IM divided bid/tid; not to exceed 1.5 g/d regardless of higher BW

Pediatric

15-22.5 mg/kg/d IV/IM divided q8h

Interactions

Coadministration with other aminoglycosides, penicillins, cephalosporins, and amphotericin B increases nephrotoxicity; enhances effects of neuromuscular blocking agents; causes respiratory depression; irreversible hearing loss may occur with coadministration of loop diuretics

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Not intended for long-term therapy; caution in patients with renal failure (not on dialysis), hypocalcemia, myasthenia gravis, and conditions that depress neuromuscular transmission

Minocycline (Dynacin, Minocin)

Another alternative drug both in PO and IV formulations for prolonged treatment. However, it is not recommended in children <8 y.

Dosing

Adult

200 mg PO bid for 6 mo

Pediatric

<8 years: Not recommended
>8 years:
Loading dose: 4 mg/kg/dose PO/IV then, 2 mg/kg/dose q12h; not to exceed 400 mg/d for 6-12 wk (lymphocutaneous)
Disseminated: Continue at least 3 mo after clinical cure is achieved; usually up to 1 y

Interactions

Bioavailability decreases with antacids containing aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, or bismuth subsalicylate; can decrease effects of PO contraceptives, causing breakthrough bleeding and increased risk of pregnancy; tetracyclines can increase hypoprothrombinemic effects of anticoagulants

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; severe hepatic dysfunction

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Photosensitivity may occur with prolonged exposure to sunlight or tanning equipment; reduce dose in renal impairment; consider drug serum level determinations in prolonged therapy; tetracycline use during tooth development (last half of pregnancy through age 8 y) can cause permanent discoloration of teeth; Fanconilike syndrome may occur with outdated tetracyclines

Amoxicillin and clavulanate (Augmentin)

Aminopenicillin with a beta-lactamase inhibitor. Doses are based on the amoxicillin component. This drug is used as a follow-up treatment PO agent for prolonged therapy following IV treatment with imipenem or meropenem/amikacin. (See trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for suggested treatment duration.)

Dosing

Adult

500 mg q12h PO or 250 mg PO q8h

Pediatric

<40 kg: 20-40 mg/kg/d PO divided bid
>40 kg: Administer as in adults

Interactions

Coadministration with warfarin or heparin, increases risk of bleeding

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

GI upset, rash, diarrhea may occur

Ampicillin (Marcillin, Omnipen)

Bactericidal activity against susceptible organisms. Alternative to amoxicillin when unable to take PO medication.

Dosing

Adult

0.5-1 g IV q6h

Pediatric

200-400 mg/kg/d IV divided q6h

Interactions

Probenecid and disulfiram elevate ampicillin levels; allopurinol decreases ampicillin effects and has additive effects on ampicillin rash; may decrease effects of PO contraceptives

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Adjust dose in renal failure; evaluate rash and differentiate from hypersensitivity reaction

Meropenem (Merrem IV)

Bactericidal broad-spectrum carbapenem antibiotic that inhibits cell-wall synthesis. Effective against most gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
Has slightly increased activity against gram-negative bacteria and slightly decreased activity against staphylococci and streptococci compared to imipenem. Not recommended for children.

Dosing

Adult

1-2 g IV q8h

Pediatric

60 mg/kg/d IV divided q8h
Meningitis: 120 mg/kg/d IV divided q8h

Interactions

Probenecid may inhibit renal excretion of meropenem, increasing meropenem levels

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

Precautions

Pseudomembranous colitis and thrombocytopenia may occur, requiring immediate discontinuation of medication

Doxycycline (Bio-Tab, Doryx, Vibramycin)

Inhibits protein synthesis and thus bacterial growth by binding to 30S and, possibly, 50S ribosomal subunits of susceptible bacteria.

Dosing

Adult

200 mg PO/IV on day 1, then 100-200 mg PO/IV qd

Pediatric

<8 years: Not recommended
>8 years: 2-4 mg/kg/d PO/IV qd

Interactions

Bioavailability decreases with antacids containing aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, or bismuth subsalicylate; tetracyclines can increase hypoprothrombinemic effects of anticoagulants; tetracyclines can decrease effects of PO contraceptives, causing breakthrough bleeding and increased risk of pregnancy

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity; severe hepatic dysfunction

Precautions

Pregnancy

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Photosensitivity may occur with prolonged exposure to sunlight or tanning equipment; reduce dose in renal impairment; consider drug serum level determinations in prolonged therapy; tetracycline use during tooth development (last half of pregnancy through age 8 y) can cause permanent discoloration of teeth; Fanconilike syndrome may occur with outdated tetracyclines

Sulfadiazine (Microsulfon)

Exerts bacteriostatic action by competitive antagonism of para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). Microorganisms that require exogenous folic acid and do not synthesize folic acid are not susceptible to the action of sulfonamides.

Dosing

Adult

Loading dose: 2-4 g PO once
Maintenance: 2-4 g/d PO divided q3-6h

Pediatric

120-150 mg/kg/d PO divided q6h

Interactions

Increases effect of PO anticoagulants and PO hypoglycemic agents; sulfadiazine effects are decreased when concurrently administered with PABA or PABA metabolites of drugs such as proparacaine, tetracaine, sunscreens, and procaine

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals

D - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Pregnancy category D near term (risk of kernicterus in newborn); caution in impaired renal, hepatic function, or G-6-PD deficiency; dose should be adjusted in renal insufficiency

Linezolid (Zyvox)

A synthetic antibiotic of the oxazolidinone class, which prevents the formation of functional 70S initiation complex. This is essential for the bacterial protein translation process. Although it seems to be bacteriostatic against Nocardia (as it is with most bacteria except pneumococci), it does seem to be a very effective therapy even as a monotherapy.

Dosing

Adult

400-600 mg PO/IV q12h for 10-28 days

Pediatric

Preterm neonate <7 days: 10 mg/kg PO/IV q12h
Term neonates-12 years: 10 mg/kg PO/IV q8h
>12 years: Administer as in adults

Interactions

Has mild MAOI properties and has potential to have same interactions as other MAOIs; caution with tyramine-containing foods and compounds; may cause hypertension when used concomitantly with adrenergic agents including pseudoephedrine, sympathomimetic agents, vasopressor or dopaminergic agents (reduce dose of dopamine or epinephrine if concurrent use required); serotonin syndrome may occur if used concomitantly with serotonergic agents including tricyclic antidepressants, meperidine, dextromethorphan, trazodone, venlafaxine, and selective serotonin reuptake; may cause myelosuppression (monitor blood counts when on chronic therapy) or pseudomembranous colitis

Contraindications

Documented hypersensitivity

Precautions

Pregnancy

C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus

Precautions

Caution in uncontrolled hypertension, pheochromocytoma, carcinoid syndrome, or untreated hyperthyroidism, and patients who are at increased risk for bleeding, have preexisting thrombocytopenia, receive concomitant medications that may decrease platelet count or function, or who may require >2 wk of therapy (monitor platelet counts); unnecessary use may lead to development of resistance to drug; may cause peripheral or optic neuropathy.

Follow-up

Further Inpatient Care

• Fulminant or disseminated nocardiosis requires multidisciplinary intensive-care management.
• Provide ongoing assessment for surgical debridement of nocardial abscesses.
• Initiate intravenous antibiotic therapy immediately, during inpatient admission.

Further Outpatient Care

• Once patient is stable, continue prolonged antibiotic therapy on an outpatient basis.
• An infectious diseases specialist should continue to monitor the patient to determine treatment progress and duration.

Transfer

• In cases of fulminant disseminated nocardiosis, transfer patient to a facility with pediatric intensive care and subspecialty care.

Deterrence/Prevention

• No specific recommendations for prophylaxis against Nocardia as an opportunistic pathogen in patients with immunocompromising conditions are known.
• Bactrim prophylaxis is recommended for patients with AIDS, chronic granulomatous disease, and various malignancies but is usually used in the context of preventing Pneumocystis pneumonia.
• The use of prophylaxis should not preclude testing, if the situation warrants, attenuate the symptoms and signs of infection. Case reports of drug-resistant Nocardia presenting in Bactrim-prophylaxed immunosuppressed patients have been presented.

Prognosis

• Morbidity and mortality are high from fulminant nocardiosis. A high index of suspicion, followed by a rapid diagnosis and treatment, is warranted.
• Intensive medical management (surgery, if necessary) and prolonged treatment leads to a cure.

Miscellaneous

Medicolegal Pitfalls

• Failure to rapidly diagnose and treat fulminant pulmonary or systemic nocardiosis, which is curable but has a high mortality rate, is a pitfall.
• Nocardia should be suspected in immunosuppressed patients who present with pulmonary symptoms (primary site of infection) or CNS findings (primary site of systemic spread), especially in the context of compatible radiographic imaging findings.

Multimedia

Media file 1: Well-formed hepatic granuloma from a patient with brucellosis.

References

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Keywords

nocardiosis, Nocardia, Nocardiaceae, Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia brasiliensis, Nocardia pseudobrasiliensis, Nocardia otitidis-caviarum, Nocardia caviae, Nocardia farcinica, Nocardia nova, Nocardia transvalensis, Nocardia carnea, Nocardia elegans, Nocardia paucivorans, Nocardia puris, Nocardia takedensis, chronic mycetoma, Nocardia abscessus, Nocardia africana, pneumonia, Nocardia ignorata, Nocardia cyriacigeorgica, cutaneous abscess, lymphocutaneous abscess, chronic granulomatous disease, human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, tuberculosis, interleukin 12 deficiency, systemic lupus erythematosus, sepsis, subcutaneous abscesses, cervical adenitis, mycetoma, septic arthritis, anorexia, lymphoreticular neoplasms, respiratory distress, respiratory failure, bronchopneumonia, lobar pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, cerebral abscess, peritonitis, hematogenous endophthalmitis, sinusitis, aortitis, endocarditis, mediastinitis, treatment, diagnosis

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Nicholas John Bennett, MB, BCh, PhD, Fellow in Pediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Upstate Medical University
Nicholas John Bennett, MB, BCh, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha and American Academy of Pediatrics
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Joseph Domachowske, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University
Joseph Domachowske, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Rosemary Johann-Liang, MD, Medical Officer, Infectious Diseases and Pediatrics, Division of Special Pathogens and Immunological Drug Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration
Rosemary Johann-Liang, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Medical Editor

Gary J Noel, MD, Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Associate Professor, Weill Medical College of Cornell University
Gary J Noel, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pharmacy Editor

Mary L Windle, PharmD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy, Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine
Disclosure: Pfizer Inc Stock Investment from financial planner; Avanir Pharma Stock Investment from financial planner ; WebMD Salary and stock Employment and investment from financial planner

Managing Editor

Joseph Domachowske, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York-Upstate Medical University
Joseph Domachowske, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

CME Editor

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD, Chief, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, The Children's Hospital at Saint Peter's University Hospital; Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine
Robert W Tolan Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi Beta Kappa, and Physicians for Social Responsibility
Disclosure: GlaxoSmithKline Honoraria Speaking and teaching; MedImmune Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Merck Honoraria Speaking and teaching; sanofi pasteur Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Baxter Healthcare Honoraria Speaking and teaching

Chief Editor

Russell W Steele, MD, Head, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ochsner Children's Health Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine
Russell W Steele, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Southern Medical Association
Disclosure: None None None

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