Rhinovirus Infection 

  • Author: Robert W Tolan Jr, MD; Chief Editor: Russell W Steele, MD   more...
 
Updated: Jan 10, 2012
 

Background

Rhinoviruses (RVs) are small (30 nm), nonenveloped viruses that contain a single-strand RNA genome within an icosahedral (20-sided) capsid. Rhinoviruses belong to the Picornaviridae family, which includes the genera Enterovirus (polioviruses, coxsackieviruses groups A and B, echoviruses, numbered enteroviruses, parechoviruses) and Hepatovirus (hepatitis A virus). Approximately 101 serotypes have been identified.

This article focuses on the common cold because it is most frequently associated with rhinovirus. Nasopharyngitis, croup, and pneumonia, which are uncommonly caused by RV, are also briefly discussed. Rhinovirus plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of otitis media and asthma exacerbations.[1, 2] Although incidence and prevalence are high, most cases are mild and self-limited.

Next

Pathophysiology

Rhinovirus can be transmitted by aerosol or direct contact. The primary site of inoculation is the nasal mucosa, although the conjunctiva may be involved to a lesser extent. Rhinovirus attaches to respiratory epithelium and spreads locally. The major human rhinovirus receptor is intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1).[3, 4] The natural response of the human defense system to injury involves ICAM-1, which aids the binding between endothelial cells and leukocytes. Rhinovirus takes advantage of the ICAM-1 by using it as a receptor for attachment. In addition, rhinovirus uses ICAM-1 for subsequent viral uncoating during cell invasion. Some rhinovirus serotypes also up-regulate ICAM-1 expression on human epithelial cells to increase susceptibility to infection.

The optimal temperature for rhinovirus replication is 33-35°C. Rhinovirus does not efficiently replicate at body temperature. This may explain why rhinovirus replicates well in the nasal passages and upper tracheobronchial tree but less well in the lower respiratory tract. The incubation period is approximately 2-4 days.[5] Viremia is uncommon.

Rhinovirus is shed in large amounts, with as many as 1 million infectious virions present per mL of nasal washings. Viral shedding can occur a few days before cold symptoms are recognized by the patient, peaks on days 2-7 of the illness, and may last as long as 3-4 weeks.

A local inflammatory response to the virus in the respiratory tract can lead to nasal discharge, nasal congestion, sneezing, and throat irritation. Damage to the nasal epithelium does not occur, and inflammation is mediated by the production of cytokines and other mediators.[6, 7] Recently, a variety of polymorphisms in cytokine genes have been shown to impact the severity of rhinovirus infection, suggesting a genetic predisposition.[8]

Histamine concentrations in nasal secretions do not increase. By days 3-5 of the illness, nasal discharge can become mucopurulent from polymorphonuclear leukocytes that have migrated to the infection site in response to chemoattractants such as interleukin-8. Nasal mucociliary transport is markedly reduced during the illness and may be impaired for weeks. Both secretory immunoglobulin A and serum antibodies are involved in resolving the illness and protecting from reinfection.

Coronaviruses, reinfections with parainfluenza, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are the most important of many other viruses that can cause common colds. Other viruses (eg, adenoviruses, influenza viruses) can also cause common colds but are more likely to cause acute nasopharyngitis and more severe respiratory infections.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae can occasionally present with common cold symptoms before developing into more extensive respiratory disease. Other pathogens include Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum, Bordetella pertussis, Chlamydia psittaci, and Coxiella burnetii.

Recent clinical studies indicate sinus involvement in common colds. Abnormalities on CT scan findings (eg, opacification, air-fluid levels, mucosal thickening) are present in adults with common colds that resolve over 1-2 weeks without antibiotic therapy.

Despite what is reported in folklore, no good clinical evidence suggests that colds are acquired by exposure to cold weather, getting wet, or becoming chilled.

Previous
Next

Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

Common colds are most frequent from September to April in temperate climates. Rhinovirus infections, which are present throughout the year, account for the initial increase in cold incidence during the fall and a second incidence peak at the end of the spring season. Colds that occur from October through March are caused by the successive appearance of numerous viruses, including parainfluenza, coronavirus, RSV, and influenza virus. Adenoviral infections occur at a constant rate throughout the season.

See the image below.

Seasonal variation of selected upper respiratory tSeasonal variation of selected upper respiratory tract infection pathogens. PIV is parainfluenza virus, RSV is respiratory syncytial virus, MPV is metapneumovirus, and Group A Strept is group A streptococcal disease.

Several studies demonstrate the incidence of the common cold to be highest in preschool and elementary school-aged children. An average of 3-8 colds per year is observed in this age group, with an even higher incidence in children who attend daycare and preschool. Because of the numerous viral agents involved and the many serotypes of several viruses (especially rhinovirus), younger children having new colds each month during the winter season is not unusual. Adults and adolescents typically have 2-4 colds per year.

International

A seasonal increase in incidence during the winter months is observed worldwide. Rhinovirus is a significant cause of respiratory tract infection worldwide.[9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] It is also a minor cause of bronchiolitis worldwide.[18]

Mortality/Morbidity

The most common manifestation of rhinovirus, the common cold, is mild and self-limited. However, severe respiratory disease, including bronchiolitis, asthma exacerbations, and pneumonia[19] can occur, particularly in infants and young children.[20] Preterm infants are also at high risk for severe rhinoviral infection.[21] Rhinovirus is a predominant pathogen in lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in very low birth weight infants[16] and shares predominance in LRTI among young infants with respiratory syncytial virus.[22, 23]

Race

Native Americans and Eskimos are more likely to develop the common cold and appear to have more frequent complications such as otitis media. These findings may be explained as much by environmental conditions (eg, poverty, overcrowding) as by ethnicity.

Age

Because antibodies to viral serotypes develop over time, the highest incidence is found in infants and young children. In addition, young children are more likely to have the frequent, close, personal contact necessary to transmit rhinovirus. Contrary to the experience of adults, children may also be more contagious due to having higher virus concentrations in secretions and longer duration of viral shedding.

Previous
Proceed to Clinical Presentation
 
 
Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD  Chief, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, The Children's Hospital at Saint Peter's University Hospital; Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi Beta Kappa, and Physicians for Social Responsibility

Disclosure: Novartis Honoraria Speaking and teaching

Specialty Editor Board

José Rafael Romero, MD  Director of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Fellowship Program, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Combined Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Creighton University/University of Nebraska Medical Center

José Rafael Romero, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, New York Academy of Sciences, and Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Larry I Lutwick, MD  Professor of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical School; Director, Infectious Diseases, Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Health Care System, Brooklyn Campus

Larry I Lutwick, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Daniel Rauch, MD, FAAP  Director, Pediatric Hospitalist Program, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, New York University School of Medicine

Daniel Rauch, MD, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: Ambulatory Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, and Society of Hospital Medicine

Disclosure: Baxter Honoraria Consulting

Chief Editor

Russell W Steele, MD  Head, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ochsner Children's Health Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine

Russell W Steele, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Southern Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledges the contributions of previous authors James D Korb, MD, and Mai Ngoc Nguyen, MD, to the original writing and contribution of this article.

References

  1. Busse WW, Gern JE, Dick EC. The role of respiratory viruses in asthma. Ciba Found Symp. 1997;206:208-13; discussion 213-9. [Medline].

  2. Friedlander SL, Busse WW. The role of rhinovirus in asthma exacerbations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Aug 2005;116(2):267-73. [Medline].

  3. Bella J, Rossmann MG. Review: rhinoviruses and their ICAM receptors. J Struct Biol. Dec 1 1999;128(1):69-74. [Medline].

  4. Greve JM, Davis G, Meyer AM, et al. The major human rhinovirus receptor is ICAM-1. Cell. Mar 10 1989;56(5):839-47. [Medline].

  5. Lessler J, Reich NG, Brookmeyer R, Perl TM, Nelson KE, Cummings DA. Incubation periods of acute respiratory viral infections: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. May 2009;9(5):291-300. [Medline].

  6. Melchjorsen J, Sørensen LN, Paludan SR. Expression and function of chemokines during viral infections: from molecular mechanisms to in vivo function. J Leukoc Biol. Sep 2003;74(3):331-43. [Medline].

  7. Message SD, Johnston SL. Host defense function of the airway epithelium in health and disease: clinical background. J Leukoc Biol. Jan 2004;75(1):5-17. [Medline].

  8. Doyle WJ, Casselbrant ML, Li-Korotky HS, Doyle AP, Lo CY, Turner R, et al. The interleukin 6 -174 C/C genotype predicts greater rhinovirus illness. J Infect Dis. Jan 15 2010;201(2):199-206. [Medline].

  9. Jin Y, Yuan XH, Xie ZP, Gao HC, Song JR, Zhang RF, et al. Prevalence and clinical characterization of a newly identified human rhinovirus C species in children with acute respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol. Sep 2009;47(9):2895-900. [Medline].

  10. Peltola V, Jartti T, Putto-Laurila A, Mertsola J, Vainionpää R, Waris M, et al. Rhinovirus infections in children: a retrospective and prospective hospital-based study. J Med Virol. Oct 2009;81(10):1831-8. [Medline].

  11. Yoshida LM, Suzuki M, Yamamoto T, Nguyen HA, Nguyen CD, Nguyen AT. Viral pathogens associated with acute respiratory infections in central vietnamese children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2010;29(1):75-7. [Medline].

  12. Moore HC, Jacoby P, Taylor A, Harnett G, Bowman J, Riley TV, et al. The interaction between respiratory viruses and pathogenic bacteria in the upper respiratory tract of asymptomatic Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jun 2010;29(6):540-5. [Medline].

  13. Moreira LP, Kamikawa J, Watanabe AS, Carraro E, Leal E, Arruda E. Frequency of human rhinovirus species in outpatient children with acute respiratory infections at primary care level in Brazil. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jul 2011;30(7):612-4. [Medline].

  14. Mak RK, Tse LY, Lam WY, Wong GW, Chan PK, Leung TF. Clinical spectrum of human rhinovirus infections in hospitalized Hong Kong children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Sep 2011;30(9):749-53. [Medline].

  15. Wishaupt JO, Russcher A, Smeets LC, Versteegh FG, Hartwig NG. Clinical Impact of RT-PCR for Pediatric Acute Respiratory Infections: A Controlled Clinical Trial. Pediatrics. Nov 2011;128(5):e1113-e1120. [Medline].

  16. Miller EK, Bugna J, Libster R, Shepherd BE, Scalzo PM, Acosta PL, et al. Human Rhinoviruses in Severe Respiratory Disease in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Pediatrics. Dec 26 2011;[Medline].

  17. Fry AM, Lu X, Olsen SJ, Chittaganpitch M, Sawatwong P, Chantra S, et al. Human rhinovirus infections in rural Thailand: epidemiological evidence for rhinovirus as both pathogen and bystander. PLoS One. Mar 29 2011;6(3):e17780. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  18. Miron D, Srugo I, Kra-Oz Z, Keness Y, Wolf D, Amirav I, et al. Sole pathogen in acute bronchiolitis: is there a role for other organisms apart from respiratory syncytial virus?. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2010;29(1):e7-e10. [Medline].

  19. O'callaghan-Gordo C, Bassat Q, Morais L, et al. Etiology and Epidemiology of Viral Pneumonia Among Hospitalized Children in Rural Mozambique: A Malaria Endemic Area With High Prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2011;30(1):39-44. [Medline].

  20. Louie JK, Roy-Burman A, Guardia-Labar L, Boston EJ, Kiang D, Padilla T. Rhinovirus associated with severe lower respiratory tract infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Apr 2009;28(4):337-9. [Medline].

  21. van Piggelen RO, van Loon AM, Krediet TG, Verboon-Maciolek MA. Human rhinovirus causes severe infection in preterm infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Apr 2010;29(4):364-5. [Medline].

  22. Van Leeuwen JC, Goossens LK, Hendrix RM, Van Der Palen J, Lusthusz A, Thio BJ. Equal virulence of rhinovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in infants hospitalized for lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2012;31(1):84-6. [Medline].

  23. García C, Soriano-Fallas A, Lozano J, Leos N, Gomez AM, Ramilo O, et al. Decreased innate immune cytokine responses correlate with disease severity in children with respiratory syncytial virus and human rhinovirus bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2012;31(1):86-9. [Medline].

  24. Linsuwanon P, Payungporn S, Samransamruajkit R, Theamboonlers A, Poovorawan Y. Recurrent human rhinovirus infections in infants with refractory wheezing. Emerg Infect Dis. Jun 2009;15(6):978-80. [Medline].

  25. Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, Murdoch DR. Viral pneumonia. Lancet. Apr 9 2011;377(9773):1264-75. [Medline].

  26. Laham FR, Trott AA, Bennett BL, Kozinetz CA, Jewell AM, Garofalo RP, et al. LDH Concentration in Nasal-Wash Fluid as a Biochemical Predictor of Bronchiolitis Severity. Pediatrics. Jan 25 2010;[Medline].

  27. [Best Evidence] Doan QH, Kissoon N, Dobson S, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of the impact of early and rapid diagnosis of viral infections in children brought to an emergency department with febrile respiratory tract illnesses. J Pediatr. Jan 2009;154(1):91-5. [Medline].

  28. Chen EC, Miller SA, DeRisi JL, Chiu CY. Using a pan-viral microarray assay (Virochip) to screen clinical samples for viral pathogens. J Vis Exp. Apr 27 2011;[Medline]. [Full Text].

  29. Buecher C, Mardy S, Wang W, et al. Use of a multiplex PCR/RT-PCR approach to assess the viral causes of influenza-like illnesses in Cambodia during three consecutive dry seasons. J Med Virol. Oct 2010;82(10):1762-72. [Medline].

  30. Do DH, Laus S, Leber A, et al. A one-step, real-time PCR assay for rapid detection of rhinovirus. J Mol Diagn. Jan 2010;12(1):102-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  31. Gambarino S, Costa C, Elia M, Sidoti F, Mantovani S, Gruosso V, et al. Development of a RT real-time PCR for the detection and quantification of human rhinoviruses. Mol Biotechnol. Jul 2009;42(3):350-7. [Medline].

  32. Faux CE, Arden KE, Lambert SB, Nissen MD, Nolan TM, Chang AB, et al. Usefulness of published PCR primers in detecting human rhinovirus infection. Emerg Infect Dis. Feb 2011;17(2):296-8. [Medline].

  33. Paul IM, Beiler JS, King TS, Clapp ER, Vallati J, Berlin CM Jr. Vapor rub, petrolatum, and no treatment for children with nocturnal cough and cold symptoms. Pediatrics. Dec 2010;126(6):1092-9. [Medline].

  34. Singh M, Das RR. Zinc for the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Feb 16 2011;2:CD001364. [Medline].

  35. Shehab N, Schaefer MK, Kegler SR, Budnitz DS. Adverse events from cough and cold medications after a market withdrawal of products labeled for infants. Pediatrics. Dec 2010;126(6):1100-7. [Medline].

  36. Infant deaths associated with cough and cold medications--two states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Jan 12 2007;56(1):1-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  37. Calvo C, Garcia ML, Pozo F, Reyes N, Pérez-Breña P, Casas I. Role of rhinovirus C in apparently life-threatening events in infants, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis. Sep 2009;15(9):1506-8. [Medline].

  38. Arden KE, Faux CE, O'Neill NT, et al. Molecular characterization and distinguishing features of a novel human rhinovirus (HRV) C, HRVC-QCE, detected in children with fever, cough and wheeze during 2003. J Clin Virol. Mar 2010;47(3):219-23. [Medline].

  39. Iwane MK, Prill MM, Lu X, Miller EK, Edwards KM, Hall CB, et al. Human rhinovirus species associated with hospitalizations for acute respiratory illness in young US children. J Infect Dis. Dec 2011;204(11):1702-10. [Medline].

  40. Lemanske RF, Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, et al. Rhinovirus illnesses during infancy predict subsequent childhood wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Sep 2005;116(3):571-7. [Medline].

  41. Jackson DJ. The role of rhinovirus infections in the development of early childhood asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. Dec 4 2009;[Medline].

  42. Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, Evans MD, Roberg KA, Anderson EL, Pappas TE, et al. Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct 1 2008;178(7):667-72. [Medline].

  43. Gern JE. Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. Feb 2009;9(1):73-8. [Medline].

  44. Martinez FD. The origins of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in early life. Proc Am Thorac Soc. May 1 2009;6(3):272-7. [Medline].

  45. Calvo C, Casas I, García-García ML, Pozo F, Reyes N, Cruz N, et al. Role of rhinovirus C respiratory infections in sick and healthy children in Spain. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Aug 2010;29(8):717-20. [Medline].

  46. Rosenthal LA, Avila PC, Heymann PW, Martin RJ, Miller EK, Papadopoulos NG, et al. Viral respiratory tract infections and asthma: the course ahead. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Jun 2010;125(6):1212-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  47. Olenec JP, Kim WK, Lee WM, Vang F, Pappas TE, Salazar LE. Weekly monitoring of children with asthma for infections and illness during common cold seasons. J Allergy Clin Immunol. May 2010;125(5):1001-1006.e1. [Medline].

  48. Busse WW, Lemanske RF Jr, Gern JE. Role of viral respiratory infections in asthma and asthma exacerbations. Lancet. Sep 4 2010;376(9743):826-34. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  49. Miller EK. New human rhinovirus species and their significance in asthma exacerbation and airway remodeling. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. Nov 2010;30(4):541-52, vii. [Medline].

  50. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, Josephs L, et al. Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children. BMJ. May 13 1995;310(6989):1225-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  51. Gavala ML, Bertics PJ, Gern JE. Rhinoviruses, allergic inflammation, and asthma. Immunol Rev. Jul 2011;242(1):69-90. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  52. Guilbert TW, Singh AM, Danov Z, Evans MD, Jackson DJ, Burton R, et al. Decreased lung function after preschool wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in children at risk to develop asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Sep 2011;128(3):532-8.e1-10. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  53. Jackson DJ, Lemanske RF Jr. The role of respiratory virus infections in childhood asthma inception. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. Nov 2010;30(4):513-22, vi. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  54. Jartti T, Korppi M. Rhinovirus-induced bronchiolitis and asthma development. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. Jun 2011;22(4):350-5. [Medline].

  55. Miller EK, Williams JV, Gebretsadik T, Carroll KN, Dupont WD, Mohamed YA, et al. Host and viral factors associated with severity of human rhinovirus-associated infant respiratory tract illness. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Apr 2011;127(4):883-91. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  56. Ozcan C, Toyran M, Civelek E, Erkoçoglu M, Altas AB, Albayrak N, et al. Evaluation of respiratory viral pathogens in acute asthma exacerbations during childhood. J Asthma. Nov 2011;48(9):888-93. [Medline].

  57. Smuts HE, Workman LJ, Zar HJ. Human rhinovirus infection in young African children with acute wheezing. BMC Infect Dis. Mar 15 2011;11:65. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  58. Peltola V, Heikkinen T, Ruuskanen O, et al. Temporal association between rhinovirus circulation in the community and invasive pneumococcal disease in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jun 2011;30(6):456-61. [Medline].

  59. Reid AB, Anderson TL, Cooley L, Williamson J, McGregor AR. An outbreak of human rhinovirus species C infections in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Dec 2011;30(12):1096-5. [Medline].

  60. AAP. Rhinovirus Infections. In: Red Book: 2009 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 28th. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2009:569-70.

  61. Antunes H, Rodrigues H, Silva N, et al. Etiology of bronchiolitis in a hospitalized pediatric population: prospective multicenter study. J Clin Virol. Jun 2010;48(2):134-6. [Medline].

  62. Arden KE, McErlean P, Nissen MD, et al. Frequent detection of human rhinoviruses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, and bocavirus during acute respiratory tract infections. J Med Virol. Sep 2006;78(9):1232-40. [Medline].

  63. Arruda E, Hayden FG. Update on therapy of influenza and rhinovirus infections. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1996;394:175-87. [Medline].

  64. Atmar RL, Dick EC, Byers RL. Rhinoviruses. In: Oski's Pediatrics, Principles and Practice. 3rd ed. 1999:1084-1086, 1217, 1276-1280.

  65. Bellei N, Carraro E, Perosa AH, et al. Influenza and rhinovirus infections among health-care workers. Respirology. Jan 2007;12(1):100-3. [Medline].

  66. Bermingham A, Henrickson K, Hayden F, et al. VII International Symposium on Respiratory Viral Infections. Antivir Ther. 2007;12(4 Pt B):671-93. [Medline].

  67. Calvo C, Garcia-Garcia ML, Blanco C, et al. Role of rhinovirus in hospitalized infants with respiratory tract infections in Spain. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Oct 2007;26(10):904-8. [Medline].

  68. Carroll ML, Yerkovich ST, Pritchard AL, Davies JM, Upham JW. Adaptive immunity to rhinoviruses: sex and age matter. Respir Res. Dec 31 2010;11:184. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  69. Cheuk DK, Tang IW, Chan KH, et al. Rhinovirus infection in hospitalized children in Hong Kong: a prospective study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Nov 2007;26(11):995-1000. [Medline].

  70. Contoli M, Caramori G, Mallia P, et al. A human rhinovirus model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. Contrib Microbiol. 2007;14:101-12. [Medline].

  71. Cordey S, Junier T, Gerlach D, et al. Rhinovirus genome evolution during experimental human infection. PLoS One. May 11 2010;5(5):e10588. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  72. de Almeida MB, Zerbinati RM, Tateno AF, Oliveira CM, Romao RM, Rodrigues JC, et al. Rhinovirus C and respiratory exacerbations in children with cystic fibrosis. Emerg Infect Dis. Jun 2010;16(6):996-9. [Medline].

  73. Denny FW Jr. The clinical impact of human respiratory virus infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct 1995;152(4 Pt 2):S4-12. [Medline].

  74. Dershewitz RA, Macknin ML. The common cold. In: Ambulatory Pediatric Care. 3rd ed. 1999:834-6.

  75. Emuzyte R, Firantiene R, Petraityte R, Sasnauskas K. Human rhinoviruses, allergy, and asthma: a clinical approach. Medicina (Kaunas). 2009;45(11):839-47. [Medline].

  76. Fairchok MP, Martin ET, Chambers S, et al. Epidemiology of viral respiratory tract infections in a prospective cohort of infants and toddlers attending daycare. J Clin Virol. Sep 2010;49(1):16-20. [Medline].

  77. Freymuth F, Vabret A, Cuvillon-Nimal D, et al. Comparison of multiplex PCR assays and conventional techniques for the diagnostic of respiratory virus infections in children admitted to hospital with an acute respiratory illness. J Med Virol. Nov 2006;78(11):1498-504. [Medline].

  78. Gern JE, Brooks GD, Meyer P, et al. Bidirectional interactions between viral respiratory illnesses and cytokine responses in the first year of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Jan 2006;117(1):72-8. [Medline].

  79. Gerna G, Piralla A, Rovida F, Rognoni V, Marchi A, Locatelli F, et al. Correlation of rhinovirus load in the respiratory tract and clinical symptoms in hospitalized immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. J Med Virol. Aug 2009;81(8):1498-507. [Medline].

  80. Gielen V, Johnston SL, Edwards MR. Azithromycin induces anti-viral responses in bronchial epithelial cells. Eur Respir J. Sep 2010;36(3):646-54. [Medline].

  81. Greenberg SB. Rhinovirus and coronavirus infections. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. Apr 2007;28(2):182-92. [Medline].

  82. Hamano-Hasegawa K, Morozumi M, Nakayama E, Chiba N, Murayama SY, Takayanagi R, et al. Comprehensive detection of causative pathogens using real-time PCR to diagnose pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Chemother. Dec 2008;14(6):424-432. [Medline].

  83. Hayden FG. Respiratory viral threats. Curr Opin Infect Dis. Apr 2006;19(2):169-78. [Medline].

  84. Hershenson MB, Johnston SL. Rhinovirus infections: more than a common cold. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Dec 15 2006;174(12):1284-5. [Medline].

  85. Heymann PW, Platts-Mills TA, Johnston SL. Role of viral infections, atopy and antiviral immunity in the etiology of wheezing exacerbations among children and young adults. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Nov 2005;24(11 Suppl):S217-22, discussion S220-1. [Medline].

  86. Huang T, Wang W, Bessaud M, Ren P, Sheng J, Yan H, et al. Evidence of recombination and genetic diversity in human rhinoviruses in children with acute respiratory infection. PLoS One. Jul 27 2009;4(7):e6355. [Medline].

  87. Ison MG. Respiratory viral infections in transplant recipients. Antivir Ther. 2007;12(4 Pt B):627-38. [Medline].

  88. Jackson DJ. The role of rhinovirus infections in the development of early childhood asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. Apr 2010;10(2):133-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  89. Jackson DJ, Johnston SL. The role of viruses in acute exacerbations of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Jun 2010;125(6):1178-87; quiz 1188-9. [Medline].

  90. Jang YJ, Wang JH, Kim JS, Kwon HJ, Yeo NK, Lee BJ. Levocetirizine inhibits rhinovirus-induced ICAM-1 and cytokine expression and viral replication in airway epithelial cells. Antiviral Res. Dec 22 2008;[Medline].

  91. Kelly JT, Busse WW. Host immune responses to rhinovirus: mechanisms in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Oct 2008;122(4):671-82; quiz 683-4. [Medline].

  92. Khetsuriani N, Kazerouni NN, Erdman DD, et al. Prevalence of viral respiratory tract infections in children with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Feb 2007;119(2):314-21. [Medline].

  93. Kim SR, Ki CS, Lee NY. Rapid detection and identification of 12 respiratory viruses using a dual priming oligonucleotide system-based multiplex PCR assay. J Virol Methods. Dec 23 2008;[Medline].

  94. Kistler A, Avila PC, Rouskin S, et al. Pan-viral screening of respiratory tract infections in adults with and without asthma reveals unexpected human coronavirus and human rhinovirus diversity. J Infect Dis. Sep 15 2007;196(6):817-25. [Medline].

  95. Kistler AL, Webster DR, Rouskin S, et al. Genome-wide diversity and selective pressure in the human rhinovirus. Virol J. May 3 2007;4:40. [Medline].

  96. Lamson D, Renwick N, Kapoor V, et al. MassTag polymerase-chain-reaction detection of respiratory pathogens, including a new rhinovirus genotype, that caused influenza-like illness in New York State during 2004-2005. J Infect Dis. Nov 15 2006;194(10):1398-402. [Medline].

  97. Lau SK, Yip CC, Lin AW, Lee RA, So LY, Lau YL, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of human rhinovirus C in children and adults in Hong Kong reveals a possible distinct human rhinovirus C subgroup. J Infect Dis. Oct 1 2009;200(7):1096-103. [Medline].

  98. Lee BE, Robinson JL, Khurana V, et al. Enhanced identification of viral and atypical bacterial pathogens in lower respiratory tract samples with nucleic acid amplification tests. J Med Virol. May 2006;78(5):702-10. [Medline].

  99. Lehtinen P, Ruohola A, Vanto T, Vuorinen T, Ruuskanen O, Jartti T. Prednisolone reduces recurrent wheezing after a first wheezing episode associated with rhinovirus infection or eczema. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Mar 2007;119(3):570-5. [Medline].

  100. Maffey AF, Barrero PR, Venialgo C, et al. Viruses and atypical bacteria associated with asthma exacerbations in hospitalized children. Pediatr Pulmonol. Jun 2010;45(6):619-25. [Medline].

  101. Malmstrom K, Pitkaranta A, Carpen O, et al. Human rhinovirus in bronchial epithelium of infants with recurrent respiratory symptoms. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Sep 2006;118(3):591-6. [Medline].

  102. Manoha C, Espinosa S, Aho SL, et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of hMPV, RSV and RVs infections in young children. J Clin Virol. Mar 2007;38(3):221-6. [Medline].

  103. Meerhoff TJ, Houben ML, Coenjaerts FE, et al. Detection of multiple respiratory pathogens during primary respiratory infection: nasal swab versus nasopharyngeal aspirate using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. Apr 2010;29(4):365-71. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  104. Midulla F, Scagnolari C, Bonci E, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus, human bocavirus and rhinovirus bronchiolitis in infants. Arch Dis Child. Jan 2010;95(1):35-41. [Medline].

  105. Miller EK, Edwards KM, Weinberg GA, Iwane MK, Griffin MR, Hall CB, et al. A novel group of rhinoviruses is associated with asthma hospitalizations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Nov 20 2008;[Medline].

  106. Miller EK, Khuri-Bulos N, Williams JV, Shehabi AA, Faouri S, Al Jundi I, et al. Human rhinovirus C associated with wheezing in hospitalised children in the Middle East. J Clin Virol. Sep 2009;46(1):85-9. [Medline].

  107. Miller EK, Lu X, Erdman DD, et al. Rhinovirus-associated hospitalizations in young children. J Infect Dis. Mar 15 2007;195(6):773-81. [Medline].

  108. Monto AS. Viral respiratory infections in the community: epidemiology, agents, and interventions. Am J Med. Dec 29 1995;99(6B):24S-27S. [Medline].

  109. Pappas DE, Hendley JO, Hayden FG, et al. Symptom profile of common colds in school-aged children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2008;27(1):8-11. [Medline].

  110. Pavia AT. Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis. May 2011;52 Suppl 4:S284-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  111. Pelosi U, Porcu G, Chia L, Firinu D. Bronchiolitis today. J Chemother. Oct 2007;19 Suppl 2:5-7. [Medline].

  112. Peltola V, Waris M, Osterback R, et al. Rhinovirus Transmission within Families with Children: Incidence of Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Infections. J Infect Dis. Feb 1 2008;197(3):382-9. [Medline].

  113. Peltola V, Waris M, Osterback R, Susi P, Hyypiä T, Ruuskanen O. Clinical effects of rhinovirus infections. J Clin Virol. Dec 2008;43(4):411-4. [Medline].

  114. Piotrowska Z, Vázquez M, Shapiro ED, Weibel C, Ferguson D, Landry ML. Rhinoviruses Are a Major Cause of Wheezing and Hospitalization in Children Less Than 2 Years of Age. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2009;28(1):25-29. [Medline].

  115. Pitkäranta A, Hayden FG. Rhinoviruses: important respiratory pathogens. Ann Med. Dec 1998;30(6):529-37. [Medline].

  116. Quan PL, Palacios G, Jabado OJ, et al. Detection of respiratory viruses and subtype identification of influenza A viruses by GreeneChipResp oligonucleotide microarray. J Clin Microbiol. Aug 2007;45(8):2359-64. [Medline].

  117. Rankl C, Kienberger F, Wildling L, Wruss J, Gruber HJ, Blaas D, et al. Multiple receptors involved in human rhinovirus attachment to live cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Nov 18 2008;105(46):17778-83. [Medline].

  118. Romero JR. Pleconaril: a novel antipicornaviral drug. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. Feb 2001;10(2):369-79. [Medline].

  119. Savolainen-Kopra C, Blomqvist S, Kilpi T, Roivainen M, Hovi T. Novel species of human rhinoviruses in acute otitis media. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Jan 2009;28(1):59-61. [Medline].

  120. Sears MR. Epidemiology of asthma exacerbations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Oct 2008;122(4):662-8; quiz 669-70. [Medline].

  121. Singh AM, Busse WW. Human rhinovirus models in asthma. Contrib Microbiol. 2007;14:12-20. [Medline].

  122. Smith MB. Acute rhinitis and pharyngitis. In: Evidence-Based Pediatrics. 2000:83-90.

  123. Spiteri MA, Bianco A. The clinical and biological impact of viral respiratory infections on the human airway: focus on the rhinovirus. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. Feb 1998;53(1):80-2. [Medline].

  124. Sung RY, Chan PK, Tsen T, Li AM, Lam WY, Yeung AC, et al. Identification of viral and atypical bacterial pathogens in children hospitalized with acute respiratory infections in Hong Kong by multiplex PCR assays. J Med Virol. Jan 2009;81(1):153-9. [Medline].

  125. Szefler SJ. Asthma exacerbations: putting a lid on the volcano. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Oct 2008;122(4):697-9. [Medline].

  126. Taketomo C. CHLA. In: Pediatric Dosing Handbook and Formulary. 12th ed. 1997-1998.

  127. Tapparel C, Cordey S, Junier T, Farinelli L, Van Belle S, Soccal PM, et al. Rhinovirus genome variation during chronic upper and lower respiratory tract infections. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21163. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  128. Tapparel C, Junier T, Gerlach D, et al. New complete genome sequences of human rhinoviruses shed light on their phylogeny and genomic features. BMC Genomics. Jul 10 2007;8:224. [Medline].

  129. Terajima M, Yamaya M, Sekizawa K, et al. Rhinovirus infection of primary cultures of human tracheal epithelium: role of ICAM-1 and IL-1beta. Am J Physiol. Oct 1997;273(4 Pt 1):L749-59. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  130. Tregoning JS, Schwarze J. Respiratory viral infections in infants: causes, clinical symptoms, virology, and immunology. Clin Microbiol Rev. Jan 2010;23(1):74-98. [Medline].

  131. Turner RB. New considerations in the treatment and prevention of rhinovirus infections. Pediatr Ann. Jan 2005;34(1):53-7. [Medline].

  132. Turner RB. Rhinovirus: more than just a common cold virus. J Infect Dis. Mar 15 2007;195(6):765-6. [Medline].

  133. Verboon-Maciolek MA, Krediet TG, Gerards LJ, et al. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of viral infections in a neonatal intensive care unit during a 12-year period. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Oct 2005;24(10):901-4. [Medline].

  134. Versteegh FG, Weverling GJ, Peeters MF, et al. Community-acquired pathogens associated with prolonged coughing in children: a prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. Oct 2005;11(10):801-7. [Medline].

  135. Weinberger M. Can we prevent exacerbations of asthma caused by common cold viruses?. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Oct 2010;126(4):770-1. [Medline].

  136. Winther B. Rhinovirus infections in the upper airway. Proc Am Thorac Soc. Mar 2011;8(1):79-89. [Medline].

  137. Winther B, Hayden FG, Hendley JO. Picornavirus infections in children diagnosed by RT-PCR during longitudinal surveillance with weekly sampling: Association with symptomatic illness and effect of season. J Med Virol. May 2006;78(5):644-50. [Medline].

  138. Winther B, McCue K, Ashe K, et al. Environmental contamination with rhinovirus and transfer to fingers of healthy individuals by daily life activity. J Med Virol. Oct 2007;79(10):1606-10. [Medline].

  139. Wright PF, Deatly AM, Karron RA, et al. Comparison of results of detection of rhinovirus by PCR and viral culture in human nasal wash specimens from subjects with and without clinical symptoms of respiratory illness. J Clin Microbiol. Jul 2007;45(7):2126-9. [Medline].

  140. Yanney M, Vyas H. The treatment of bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child. Sep 2008;93(9):793-8. [Medline].

  141. Zalm MM, van Ewijk BE, Wilbrink B, Uiterwaal CS, Wolfs TF, van der Ent CK. Respiratory Pathogens in Children with and without Respiratory Symptoms. J Pediatr. Sep 27 2008;[Medline].

 
Previous
Next
 
Seasonal variation of selected upper respiratory tract infection pathogens. PIV is parainfluenza virus, RSV is respiratory syncytial virus, MPV is metapneumovirus, and Group A Strept is group A streptococcal disease.
 
 
 
All material on this website is protected by copyright, Copyright © 1994-2012 by WebMD LLC.
This website also contains material copyrighted by 3rd parties.

DISCLAIMER: The content of this Website is not influenced by sponsors. The site is designed primarily for use by qualified physicians and other medical professionals. The information contained herein should NOT be used as a substitute for the advice of an appropriately qualified and licensed physician or other health care provider. The information provided here is for educational and informational purposes only. In no way should it be considered as offering medical advice. Please check with a physician if you suspect you are ill.