Pediatric Scrub Typhus 

  • Author: David J Cennimo, MD, FACP, FAAP, AAHIVS; Chief Editor: Russell W Steele, MD   more...
 
Updated: Jan 5, 2010
 

Background

Scrub typhus is an acute, febrile, infectious illness that was first described in China in 313 AD. This illness is caused by Orientia (formerly Rickettsia) tsutsugamushi, an obligate intracellular gram-negative bacterium, which was first isolated in Japan in 1930. Although it was originally recognized as one of the tropical rickettsial diseases, O tsutsugamushi has a different cell wall structure and genetic composition than that of the rickettsiae. Western medicine became more interested in this infection during military campaigns fought in East Asia. During World War II, 18,000 cases were observed in Allied troops.[1] It was the second or third most common infection reported in US troops stationed in Vietnam[2] and continues to infect troops in the region.[3, 4]

A photomicrograph of O tsutsugamushi is shown in the image below.

A transmission electron micrograph depicting a perA transmission electron micrograph depicting a peritoneal mesothelial cell of a mouse that had been experimentally infected intraperitoneally with Orientia tsutsugamushi rickettsial micro-organisms. In this photomicrograph, several organisms are visible within the mesothelial cell's cytoplasm. O tsutsugamushi is the cause of scrub typhus.

The term scrub is used because of the type of vegetation (ie, terrain between woods and clearings) that harbors the vector. However, the name is not entirely correct because certain endemic areas can also be sandy and semiarid. Cases diagnosed in the United States have been imported from regions of the "tsutsugamushi triangle," which extends from northern Japan and far-eastern Russia in the north, to northern Australia in the south, and to Pakistan and Afghanistan in the west, where the disease is endemic. The range includes tropical and temperate regions, extending to altitudes of more then 3200 meters in the Himalayas. Scrub typhus is often acquired during occupational/agricultural exposures[5] because active rice fields are an important reservoir for transmission.[1]

An estimated one million cases occur annually and as many as one billion people living in endemic areas may have been infected at some time.[4] Because of reports of O tsutsugamushi strains with reduced susceptibility to antibiotics,[6] as well as reports of interesting interactions between this bacterium and HIV, a renewed interest in this illness has emerged.[7, 8]

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Pathophysiology

O tsutsugamushi is very similar and indeed meets all of the classifications of the genus Rickettsia; it is a small (0.5 x 1.2-3 μm), arthropod born, obligate intracellular bacteria. This connection is demonstrated by the high degree of homology (90-99%) noted in 16S ribosomal sequencing. However, the cell walls are quite different as Orientia lack peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide.[1]

O tsutsugamushi is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected chigger, the larval stage of trombiculid mites (Leptotrombidium deliense and others). These 6-legged, 0.2-mm larvae are not host specific and feed for 2-10 days on the skin fluids of the host. Wild rats serve as the natural reservoir for the chiggers (and represent a risk factor for human infection[5] ), but are rarely infected with O tsutsugamushi.[1] When the chiggers feed on humans, infection occurs.

Orientia is also transmitted transovarially in the mite population and can unbalance the sex ratio of offspring in favor of females, further propagating infection.[1, 9] Chigger activity and subsequent human infection rates are determined by the species of Leptotrombidium, as well as local conditions. In tropical regions, the disease may be acquired year round. In Japan, the chigger of L akamushi is only active between July and September, when the temperature is above 25ºC. In contrast, L Palladium which is found over a wide range, is active at temperatures of 18-20ºC (spring into early summer and autumn).[1, 10]

Image of a chigger. Image taken from "Food and EnvImage of a chigger. Image taken from "Food and Environmental Hygiene Department" Web site and is reproduced under license from the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

Humans acquire the disease when an infected chigger bites them while feeding and inoculates O tsutsugamushi pathogens. The bacteria multiply at the inoculation site with the formation of a papule that ulcerates and becomes necrotic, evolving into an eschar, with regional lymphadenopathy that may progress to generalized lymphadenopathy within a few days. In experimental infection, humans developed an acute febrile illness within 8-10 days of the chigger bite. Bacteremia was present 1-3 days before onset of fever.[11] As in rickettsial diseases, perivasculitis of the small blood vessels occurs. The endothelium is involved; however, the basic histopathologic lesions suggest that macrophages might be more affected.[12]

O tsutsugamushi stimulates phagocytosis by the immune cells then escapes the phagosome. It replicates in the cytoplasm and then buds from the cell. The bacteria are able to harness the microtubule assembly inside the human cell for movement. Antibody opsonized bacteria are still able to escape the phagosome but cannot effectively move on the microtubule which decreases the overall infectivity.[1]

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

Reported cases are imported by travelers, military personnel, and persons who have emigrated from abroad.[10, 13]

International

Scrub typhus is endemic in regions of eastern Asia and the southwestern Pacific (Korea to Australia) and from Japan to India and Pakistan.[12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]

It is generally a disease of rural villages and suburban areas and is normally not encountered in the cities. Although most cases are undiagnosed, prospective studies in endemic areas reveal in incidence of 18-23%.[1, 19] Community surveys in Malaysia reported an incidence of 3.2-3.5% per month and a seroprevalence of more than 80% in those older than 44 years.[20] Surveillance of military personal deployed in southeast Asia demonstrated seroconversion in 484 per 1000 population.[3] Recently, cases have been noted earlier in the season due to increased mite activity as the weather warms.[21]

Mortality/Morbidity

Mortality rates in untreated patients range from 0-30% and tend to vary with the patient's age and region of infection. In the preantibiotic era, mortality rates in Japan averaged 30%. The mortality was 15% in patients aged 11-20 years, 20% in those aged 21-30 years, and 59% in those older than 60 years. In Taiwan, the overall mortality was estimated at 11% but was only 5% in children and 45% in the elderly. With appropriate treatment, mortality is quite rare.[1, 21] However, mortality is still approximately 15% in some areas due to missed or delayed diagnosis.[22] If severe complications such as adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) arise, mortality may still be high.[23]

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

David J Cennimo, MD, FACP, FAAP, AAHIVS  Assistant Professor of Medicine and Pediatrics, Adult and Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Co-Director Physician's Core, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School

David J Cennimo, MD, FACP, FAAP, AAHIVS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, HIV Medicine Association of America, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Medical Society of New Jersey, and Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Arry Dieudonne, MD  Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonology, Allergy, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School; Clinical Director, Francois-Xavier Bagnold Center for Children, University Hospital

Arry Dieudonne, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, and Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

José Rafael Romero, MD  Director of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Fellowship Program, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Combined Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Creighton University/University of Nebraska Medical Center

José Rafael Romero, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, New York Academy of Sciences, and Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Larry I Lutwick, MD  Professor of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical School; Director, Infectious Diseases, Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Health Care System, Brooklyn Campus

Larry I Lutwick, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD  Chief, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, The Children's Hospital at Saint Peter's University Hospital; Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi Beta Kappa, and Physicians for Social Responsibility

Disclosure: Novartis Honoraria Speaking and teaching

Chief Editor

Russell W Steele, MD  Head, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ochsner Children's Health Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine

Russell W Steele, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Southern Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Aracelis D Fernandez, MD, FAAP, and Rosemary Johann-Liang, MD, to the original writing and development of this article.

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A transmission electron micrograph depicting a peritoneal mesothelial cell of a mouse that had been experimentally infected intraperitoneally with Orientia tsutsugamushi rickettsial micro-organisms. In this photomicrograph, several organisms are visible within the mesothelial cell's cytoplasm. O tsutsugamushi is the cause of scrub typhus.
Eschar on the neck.
Eschar on the scrotum.
Typical eschar.
Maculopapular rash.
Image of a chigger. Image taken from "Food and Environmental Hygiene Department" Web site and is reproduced under license from the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
 
 
 
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