Pediatric Hydrops Fetalis Medication

  • Author: Ashraf H Hamdan, MD, MBBCh, MSc, MRCP; Chief Editor: Ted Rosenkrantz, MD   more...
 
Updated: May 2, 2012
 

Medication Summary

The number of drugs that have been used for the correction of fetal arrhythmias reflects the amount of uncertainty about dosage, effectiveness, and hazards. Fetal pharmacokinetic studies are not available, and dosage schedules for these very immature infants are uncertain or derived from data on older and bigger infants and children. Thus, consider each case individually; be aware that therapeutic misadventures remain possible if not probable.

Next

Cardiac glycosides

Class Summary

These are used for fetal cardiac failure. Positive inotropic agents (eg, digoxin) increase force of contraction of myocardium and are used to treat acute and chronic CHF. Digoxin may also be used for fetal supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) because it decreases AV conduction.

View full drug information

Digoxin (Lanoxin, Lanoxicaps)

 

Recommended dosages require considerable modification because of individual variations in sensitivity to drug in adults, children, and (probably) fetuses. Usually administered to mother; thus, adult dosages are used. Transplacental transfer is normally excellent; however, impaired fetal perfusion of placental circulation due to severe cardiac failure results in impaired drug pickup; thus, fetal drug levels may be much lower than maternal concentrations.

Previous
Next

Loop diuretics

Class Summary

These are used to treat fetal edema. They promote excretion of water and electrolytes by kidneys and are used to treat heart failure or hepatic, renal, or pulmonary disease when sodium and water retention has resulted in edema or ascites.

View full drug information

Furosemide (Lasix)

 

Diuretic, in conjunction with digoxin, that has been used in management of fetal hydrops. Both transplacental (maternal administration) and direct fetal routes have been used. No satisfactory pharmacokinetic data are available to support these recommendations.

Previous
Next

Antiarrhythmic agents

Class Summary

These agents alter electrophysiologic mechanisms responsible for arrhythmia and are used to treat fetal arrhythmia.

View full drug information

Verapamil (Calan, Calan SR, Covera-HS, Verelan)

 

Anecdotal use.

View full drug information

Amiodarone (Cordarone)

 

Limited use in fetus.

View full drug information

Adenosine (Adenocard)

 

Recent use has been promising; however, most information is in form of case reports.

View full drug information

Procainamide (Procanbid, Pronestyl)

 

Use in children well established; however, little data available on use in preterm neonate or fetus.

View full drug information

Sotalol (Betapace)

 

Recent use in fetal arrhythmias has been promising; however, data are scarce, and definitive pharmacokinetic studies have not been performed.

View full drug information

Flecainide (Tambocor)

 

Limited data from infants suggest that half-life at birth may be prolonged. These data have not been extended backward to fetal life. Maternal (transplacental) use, in conjunction with digoxin, has been promising anecdotally.

Previous
Proceed to Follow-up
 
 
Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Ashraf H Hamdan, MD, MBBCh, MSc, MRCP  Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center; Neonatologist, Pediatrix Medical Group of Nashville

Ashraf H Hamdan, MD, MBBCh, MSc, MRCP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

David N Sheftel  MD, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Chicago Medical School at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science

David N Sheftel is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine and American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Arun K Pramanik, MD, MBBS  Professor of Pediatrics, Director of Neonatal Fellowship, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

Arun K Pramanik, MD, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Thoracic Society, National Perinatal Association, and Southern Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Carol L Wagner, MD  Professor of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina

Carol L Wagner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Chemical Society, American Medical Women's Association, American Public Health Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Massachusetts Medical Society, National Perinatal Association, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Ted Rosenkrantz, MD  Professor, Departments of Pediatrics and Obstetrics/Gynecology, Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, University of Connecticut School of Medicine

Ted Rosenkrantz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Pediatric Society, Connecticut State Medical Society, Eastern Society for Pediatric Research, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, George Cassady, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

References

  1. Bellini C, Hennekam RC. Non-immune hydrops fetalis: a short review of etiology and pathophysiology. Am J Med Genet A. Mar 2012;158A(3):597-605. [Medline].

  2. Pasman SA, Meerman RH, Vandenbussche FP, Oepkes D. Hypoalbuminemia: a cause of fetal hydrops?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Apr 2006;194(4):972-5. [Medline].

  3. Blair DK, Vander Straten MC, Gest AL. Hydrops in fetal sheep from rapid induction of anemia. Pediatr Res. May 1994;35(5):560-4. [Medline].

  4. Shinbane JS, Wood MA, Jensen DN, et al. Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy: a review of animal models and clinical studies. J Am Coll Cardiol. Mar 15 1997;29(4):709-15. [Medline].

  5. Kitsirisakul B, Steger HF, Sanguansermsri T. Frequency of alpha-thalassemia-1 of the Southeast Asian-type among pregnant women in northern Thailand determined by PCR technique. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. Jun 1996;27(2):362-3. [Medline].

  6. Abrams ME, Meredith KS, Kinnard P, Clark RH. Hydrops fetalis: a retrospective review of cases reported to a large national database and identification of risk factors associated with death. Pediatrics. Jul 2007;120(1):84-9. [Medline].

  7. Lin SM, Wang CH, Zhu XY, Li SL, Lin SM, Fang Q. [Clinical study on 156 cases with hydrops fetalis]. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi. Dec 2011;46(12):905-10. [Medline].

  8. Bellini C, Hennekam RC, Fulcheri E, Rutigliani M, Morcaldi G, Boccardo F. Etiology of nonimmune hydrops fetalis: A systematic review. Am J Med Genet A. Mar 30 2009;[Medline].

  9. Bowman J, Harman C, Manning F, et al. Intravenous drug abuse causes Rh immunization. Vox Sang. 1991;61(2):96-8. [Medline].

  10. Nakayama R, Yamada D, Steinmiller V, Hsia E, Hale RW. Hydrops fetalis secondary to Bart hemoglobinopathy. Obstet Gynecol. Feb 1986;67(2):176-80. [Medline].

  11. Joshi DD, Nickerson HJ, McManus MJ. Hydrops fetalis caused by homozygous alpha-thalassemia and Rh antigen alloimmunization: report of a survivor and literature review. Clin Med Res. Nov 2004;2(4):228-32. [Medline].

  12. Bachmaier N, Fusch C, Stenger RD, et al. Nonimmune hydrops fetalis due to enterovirus infection. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. Jan 2009;142(1):83-4. [Medline].

  13. Meritet JF, Krivine A, Lewin F, Poissonnier MH, Poizat R, Loget P. A case of congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection revealed by hydrops fetalis. Prenat Diagn. Feb 27 2009;[Medline].

  14. Essary LR, Vnencak-Jones CL, Manning SS, et al. Frequency of parvovirus B19 infection in nonimmune hydrops fetalis and utility of three diagnostic methods. Hum Pathol. Jul 1998;29(7):696-701. [Medline].

  15. Kiyota A, Tsukimori K, Yumoto Y, et al. Spontaneous resolution of cystic hygroma and hydrops in a fetus with Noonan's syndrome. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2008;24(4):499-502. [Medline].

  16. Iskender C, Tarim E, Yalcinkaya C. Prenatal diagnosis of right diaphragmatic eventration associated with fetal hydrops. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. May 2012;38(5):858-62. [Medline].

  17. Lee FL, Said N, Grikscheit TC, Shin CE, Llanes A, Chmait RH. Treatment of Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation Induced Hydrops Fetalis via Percutaneous Sclerotherapy. Fetal Diagn Ther. Feb 18 2012;[Medline].

  18. Stocker JT, Madewell JE, Drake RM. Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung. Classification and morphologic spectrum. Hum Pathol. Mar 1977;8(2):155-71. [Medline].

  19. Liley AW. Liquor amnii analysis in the management of the pregnancy complicated by Rhesus sensitization. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1961;82(6):1359-1370.

  20. [Guideline] Leduc L, Farine D, Armson BA, et al. Stillbirth and bereavement: guidelines for stillbirth investigation. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. Jun 2006;28(6):540-52. [Medline].

  21. Huang HR, Tsay PK, Chiang MC, Lien R, Chou YH. Prognostic factors and clinical features in liveborn neonates with hydrops fetalis. Am J Perinatol. Jan 2007;24(1):33-8. [Medline].

  22. Matsubara S, Ohmaru T, Ohkuchi A, Arai F, Kuwata T, Usui R. Mirror syndrome associated with hydropic acardius in triplet pregnancy. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2008;24(4):429-33. [Medline].

  23. Adzick NS, Harrison MR, Crombleholme TM, et al. Fetal lung lesions: management and outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1998;179(4):884-9. [Medline].

  24. Anand A, Gray ES, Brown T, et al. Human parvovirus infection in pregnancy and hydrops fetalis. N Engl J Med. Jan 22 1987;316(4):183-6. [Medline].

  25. Andres RL, Brace RA. The development of hydrops fetalis in the ovine fetus after lymphatic ligation or lymphatic excision. Am J Obstet Gynecol. May 1990;162(5):1331-4. [Medline].

  26. Aubard Y, Derouineau I, Aubard V, et al. Primary fetal hydrothorax: A literature review and proposed antenatal clinical strategy. Fetal Diagn Ther. Nov-Dec 1998;13(6):325-33. [Medline].

  27. Azancot-Benisty A, Areias JC, Oberhansli I, et al. European Study on Maternal and Fetal Management of Fetal Supraventricular Tachyarrhythmia: Proposed Protocol for an International Project. J Matern Fetal Investig. Jun 1998;8(2):92-7. [Medline].

  28. Bajoria R, Sullivan M, Fisk NM. Endothelin concentrations in monochorionic twins with severe twin-twin transfusion syndrome. Hum Reprod. Jun 1999;14(6):1614-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  29. Barron SD, Pass RF. Infectious causes of hydrops fetalis. Semin Perinatol. Dec 1995;19(6):493-501. [Medline].

  30. Bejar R, Vigliocco G, Gramajo H, et al. Antenatal origin of neurologic damage in newborn infants. II. Multiple gestations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. May 1990;162(5):1230-6. [Medline].

  31. Blickstein I. The twin-twin transfusion syndrome. Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1990;76(4):714-22. [Medline].

  32. Bond SJ, Harrison MR, Schmidt KG, et al. Death due to high-output cardiac failure in fetal sacrococcygeal teratoma. J Pediatr Surg. Dec 1990;25(12):1287-91. [Medline].

  33. Brace RA. Effects of outflow pressure on fetal lymph flow. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Feb 1989;160(2):494-7. [Medline].

  34. Brans YW, Milstead RR, Bailey PE, Cassady G. Blood-volume estimates in Coombs-test-positive infants. N Engl J Med. Jun 27 1974;290(26):1450-2. [Medline].

  35. Carlson DE, Platt LD, Medearis AL, Horenstein J. Prognostic indicators of the resolution of nonimmune hydrops fetalis and survival of the fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1990;163(6 Pt 1):1785-7. [Medline].

  36. Cowan RH, Waldo AL, Harris HB, et al. Neonatal paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia with hydrops. Pediatrics. Mar 1975;55(3):428-30. [Medline].

  37. Daniel SJ, Cassady G. Non-immunologic hydrops fetalis associated with a large hemangioendothelioma. Pediatrics. Nov 1968;42(5):828-33. [Medline].

  38. De Groot CJ, Oepkes D, Egberts J, Kanhai HH. Evidence of endothelium involvement in the pathophysiology of hydrops fetalis?. Early Hum Dev. Mar 2000;57(3):205-9. [Medline].

  39. Dieck D, Schild RL, Hansmann M, Eis-Hubinger AM. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital parvovirus B19 infection: value of serological and PCR techniques in maternal and fetal serum. Prenat Diagn. Dec 1999;19(12):1119-23. [Medline].

  40. Driscoll SG. Hydrops fetalis. N Engl J Med. Dec 22 1966;275(25):1432-4. [Medline].

  41. Dumez Y, Mandelbrot L, Radunovic N, et al. Prenatal management of congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung. J Pediatr Surg. Jan 1993;28(1):36-41. [Medline].

  42. Faber JJ, Anderson DF. Angiotensin mediated interaction of fetal kidney and placenta in the control of fetal arterial pressure and its role in hydrops fetalis. Placenta. May 1997;18(4):313-26. [Medline].

  43. Gembruch U, Knopfle G, Chatterjee M, et al. First-trimester diagnosis of fetal congenital heart disease by transvaginal two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. Obstet Gynecol. Mar 1990;75(3 Pt 2):496-8. [Medline].

  44. Gest AL, Bair DK, Vander Straten MC. The effect of outflow pressure upon thoracic duct lymph flow rate in fetal sheep. Pediatr Res. Nov 1992;32(5):585-8. [Medline].

  45. Gest AL, Hansen TN, Moise AA, Hartley CJ. Atrial tachycardia causes hydrops in fetal lambs. Am J Physiol. Apr 1990;258(4 Pt 2):H1159-63. [Medline].

  46. Gest AL, Martin CG, Moise AA, Hansen TN. Reversal of venous blood flow with atrial tachycardia and hydrops in fetal sheep. Pediatr Res. Sep 1990;28(3):223-6. [Medline].

  47. Giacoia GP. Severe fetomaternal hemorrhage: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. Jun 1997;52(6):372-80. [Medline].

  48. Gudmundsson S, Huhta JC, Wood DC, et al. Venous Doppler ultrasonography in the fetus with nonimmune hydrops. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Jan 1991;164(1 Pt 1):33-7. [Medline].

  49. Haak MC, Oosterhof H, Mouw RJ. Pathophysiology and treatment of fetal anemia due to placental chorioangioma. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Jul 1999;14(1):68-70. [Medline].

  50. Hagay Z, Reece A, Roberts A, Hobbins JC. Isolated fetal pleural effusion: a prenatal management dilemma. Obstet Gynecol. Jan 1993;81(1):147-52. [Medline].

  51. Haverkamp F, Noeker M, Gerresheim G, Fahnenstich H. Good prognosis for psychomotor development in survivors with nonimmune hydrops fetalis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Feb 2000;107(2):282-4. [Medline].

  52. Hirata GI, Masaki DI, O'Toole M, Medearis AL, Platt LD. Color flow mapping and Doppler velocimetry in the diagnosis and management of a placental chorioangioma associated with nonimmune fetal hydrops. Obstet Gynecol. May 1993;81(5 ( Pt 2)):850-2. [Medline].

  53. Khouzami AN, Kickler TS, Callan NA, et al. Devastating sequelae of alloimmune thrombocytopenia: an entity that deserves more attention. J Matern Fetal Med. May-Jun 1996;5(3):137-41. [Medline].

  54. Kirshon B, Moise KJ Jr, Mari G, et al. In utero resolution of hydrops fetalis following the death of one twin in twin-twin transfusion. Am J Perinatol. Apr 1990;7(2):107-9. [Medline].

  55. Knilans TK. Cardiac abnormalities associated with hydrops fetalis. Semin Perinatol. Dec 1995;19(6):483-92. [Medline].

  56. Liddle AD, Anderson DR, Mishra PK. Intrapericardial teratoma presenting in fetal life: intrauterine diagnosis and neonatal management. Congenit Heart Dis. Nov-Dec 2008;3(6):449-51. [Medline].

  57. Mahone PR, Sherer DM, Abramowicz JS, Woods JR Jr. Twin-twin transfusion syndrome: rapid development of severe hydrops of the donor following selective feticide of the hydropic recipient. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Jul 1993;169(1):166-8. [Medline].

  58. Miller E, Fairley CK, Cohen BJ, Seng C. Immediate and long term outcome of human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Feb 1998;105(2):174-8. [Medline].

  59. Moise AA, Gest AL, Weickmann PH, McMicken HW. Reduction in plasma protein does not affect body water content in fetal sheep. Pediatr Res. Jun 1991;29(6):623-6. [Medline].

  60. Moise KJ Jr, Carpenter RJ Jr, Hesketh DE. Do abnormal Starling forces cause fetal hydrops in red blood cell alloimmunization?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1992;167(4 Pt 1):907-12. [Medline].

  61. Moya FR, Grannum PA, Riddick L, et al. Atrial natriuretic factor in hydrops fetalis caused by Rh isoimmunisation. Arch Dis Child. Jul 1990;65(7 Spec No):683-6. [Medline].

  62. Moya FR, Grannum PA, Widness JA, et al. Erythropoietin in human fetuses with immune hemolytic anemia and hydrops fetalis. Obstet Gynecol. Sep 1993;82(3):353-8. [Medline].

  63. Muller-Hansen I, Hackeloer BJ, Kattner E. [Pre- and postnatal diagnosis and treatment of hydrops fetalis--an interdisciplinary problem]. Z Geburtshilfe Neonatol. Jan-Feb 1998;202(1):2-9. [Medline].

  64. Murphy JJ, Blair GK, Fraser GC. Coagulopathy associated with large sacrococcygeal teratomas. J Pediatr Surg. Oct 1992;27(10):1308-10. [Medline].

  65. Nimrod C, Davies D, Harder J. Ultrasound evaluation of tachycardia-induced hydrops in the fetal lamb. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Sep 1987;157(3):655-9. [Medline].

  66. Nimrod C, Keane P, Harder J, et al. Atrial natriuretic peptide production in association with nonimmune fetal hydrops. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Sep 1988;159(3):625-8. [Medline].

  67. O-Prasertsawat P, Suthutvoravut S, Chaturachinda K. Hydrops fetalis due to Bart hemoglobinopathy at Ramathibodi Hospital (1978-1987): a 10-year review. J Med Assoc Thai. Feb 1990;73 Suppl 1:65-8. [Medline].

  68. Owen J, Colvin EV, Davis RO. Fetal death after successful conversion of fetal supraventricular tachycardia with digoxin and verapamil. Am J Obstet Gynecol. May 1988;158(5):1169-70. [Medline].

  69. Paladini D, Chita SK, Allan LD. Prenatal measurement of cardiothoracic ratio in evaluation of heart disease. Arch Dis Child. Jan 1990;65(1 Spec No):20-3. [Medline].

  70. Phibbs RH, Johnson P, Tooley WH. Cardiorespiratory status of erythroblastotic newborn infants. II. Blood volume, hematocrit, and serum albumin concentration in relation to hydrops fetalis. Pediatrics. Jan 1974;53(1):13-23. [Medline].

  71. Potter EL. Universal edema of the fetus unassociated with erythroblastosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1943;46:130-134.

  72. Revillon Y, Jan D, Plattner V, et al. Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung: prenatal management and prognosis. J Pediatr Surg. Aug 1993;28(8):1009-11. [Medline].

  73. Rice HE, Estes JM, Hedrick MH, et al. Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation: a sheep model of fetal hydrops. J Pediatr Surg. May 1994;29(5):692-6. [Medline].

  74. Rodis JF, Borgida AF, Wilson M, et al. Management of parvovirus infection in pregnancy and outcomes of hydrops: a survey of members of the Society of Perinatal Obstetricians. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1998;179(4):985-8. [Medline].

  75. Ross BA. Congenital complete atrioventricular block. Pediatr Clin North Am. Feb 1990;37(1):69-78. [Medline].

  76. Saleeb S, Copel J, Friedman D, Buyon JP. Comparison of treatment with fluorinated glucocorticoids to the natural history of autoantibody-associated congenital heart block: retrospective review of the research registry for neonatal lupus. Arthritis Rheum. Nov 1999;42(11):2335-45. [Medline].

  77. Sharma RS, Yu V, Walters WA. Haemoglobin Bart's hydrops fetalis syndrome in an infant of Greek origin and prenatal diagnosis of alpha-thalassaemia. Med J Aust. Oct 20 1979;2(8):404, 433-4. [Medline].

  78. Shimokawa H, Sumioki H, Miyamoto S, et al. Is human atrial natriuretic peptide in fetal blood useful as a parameter to detect the decompensated state of the fetal heart?. J Perinat Med. 1988;16(5-6):485-6. [Medline].

  79. Shiraishi S, Kinukawa N, Nakano H, Sueishi K. Immunohistochemical distribution of vascular endothelial growth factor in the human placenta associated with hydrops fetalis. Pediatr Pathol Lab Med. Jan-Feb 1997;17(1):65-81. [Medline].

  80. Silberbach M, Anderson DF, Reller MD. Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on vascular permeation in the ovine fetus. Pediatr Res. May 1994;35(5):555-9. [Medline].

  81. Silberbach M, Woods LL, Hohimer AR, et al. Role of endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide in chronic anemia in the ovine fetus: effects of a non-peptide antagonist for atrial natriuretic peptide receptor. Pediatr Res. Nov 1995;38(5):722-8. [Medline].

  82. Silverman NH, Schmidt KG. Ventricular volume overload in the human fetus: observations from fetal echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. Jan-Feb 1990;3(1):20-9. [Medline].

  83. Simpson JM, Sharland GK. Fetal tachycardias: management and outcome of 127 consecutive cases. Heart. Jun 1998;79(6):576-81. [Medline]. [Full Text].

  84. Strasburger JF, Huhta JC, Carpenter RJ Jr, et al. Doppler echocardiography in the diagnosis and management of persistent fetal arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol. Jun 1986;7(6):1386-91. [Medline].

  85. Sun CC, Panny S, Combs J, Gutberlett R. Hydrops fetalis associated with Gaucher disease. Pathol Res Pract. Sep 1984;179(1):101-4. [Medline].

  86. Tannirandorn Y, Fisk NM, Shah V, et al. Plasma renin activity in fetal disease. J Perinat Med. 1990;18(3):229-31. [Medline].

  87. Thorpe-Beeston JG, Nicolaides KH. Cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung: prenatal diagnosis and outcome. Prenat Diagn. Aug 1994;14(8):677-88. [Medline].

  88. Tongsong T, Wanapirak C, Piyamongkol W, Sudasana J. Prenatal sonographic features of sacrococcygeal teratoma. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. Nov 1999;67(2):95-101. [Medline].

  89. Ulm B, Svolba G, Ulm MR, et al. Male fetuses are particularly affected by maternal alloimmunization to D antigen. Transfusion. Feb 1999;39(2):169-73. [Medline].

  90. van der Straten MC, Gest AL. Hemolytic anemia without an increased central venous pressure does not cause hydrops in fetal sheep (Abstract). Clin Res. 1993;41:771A.

  91. van Engelen AD, Weijtens O, Brenner JI, et al. Management outcome and follow-up of fetal tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. Nov 1 1994;24(5):1371-5. [Medline].

  92. Venkat-Raman N, Sebire NJ, Murphy KW. Recurrent fetal hydrops due to mucopolysaccharidoses type VII. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2006;21(3):250-4. [Medline].

  93. Ville Y, Proudler A, Kuhn P, Nicolaides KH. Aldosterone concentration in normal, growth-retarded, anemic, and hydropic fetuses. Obstet Gynecol. Oct 1994;84(4):511-4. [Medline].

  94. Watson J, Campbell S. Antenatal evaluation and management in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. Obstet Gynecol. Apr 1986;67(4):589-93. [Medline].

  95. Weiner CP, Pelzer GD, Heilskov J, et al. The effect of intravascular transfusion on umbilical venous pressure in anemic fetuses with and without hydrops. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1989;161(6 Pt 1):1498-501. [Medline].

  96. Weiner CP, Robillard JE. Atrial natriuretic factor, digoxin-like immunoreactive substance, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and plasma renin activity in human fetuses and their alteration by fetal disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1988;159(6):1353-60. [Medline].

  97. Whitecar PW, Moise KJ Jr. Sonographic methods to detect fetal anemia in red blood cell alloimmunization. Obstet Gynecol Surv. Apr 2000;55(4):240-50. [Medline].

  98. Williams IA, Kleinman CS. Is hydrops fetalis a manifestation of fetal pulmonary edema caused by impaired lymphatic drainage?. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. Jan 2008;31(1):96-9. [Medline].

  99. Wolf RB, Moore TR. Amniotic fluid and nonimmune hydrops fetalis. In: Fanaroff and Martin's Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine. 8th ed. 2006:409-28.

  100. Yaegashi N, Niinuma T, Chisaka H, et al. The incidence of, and factors leading to, parvovirus B19-related hydrops fetalis following maternal infection; report of 10 cases and meta-analysis. J Infect. Jul 1998;37(1):28-35. [Medline].

  101. Yamada A, Kasugai M, Ohno Y, et al. Antenatal diagnosis of twin-twin transfusion syndrome by Doppler ultrasound. Obstet Gynecol. Dec 1991;78(6):1058-61. [Medline].

  102. Yamada H, Kato EH, Furuta I, et al. Hematopoietic cytokine levels and in vitro colony formation assay in fetal anemia. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1998;24(5):485-90. [Medline].

  103. Zankl A, Osterheld MC, Vial Y, Beurret N, et al. Right-sided diaphragmatic eventration: a rare cause of non-immune hydrops fetalis. Neonatology. 2007;92(1):14-8. [Medline].

 
Previous
Next
 
Chest radiograph revealing pleural effusion with bilateral chest tubes and severe edema.
Chest and abdomen radiograph revealing severe edema and ascites.
Chest and abdomen radiograph revealing severe edema, pleural effusion, and bilateral chest tubes. Umbilical artery catheter, umbilical vein catheter, and endotracheal tube in place.
 
 
 
All material on this website is protected by copyright, Copyright © 1994-2012 by WebMD LLC.
This website also contains material copyrighted by 3rd parties.

DISCLAIMER: The content of this Website is not influenced by sponsors. The site is designed primarily for use by qualified physicians and other medical professionals. The information contained herein should NOT be used as a substitute for the advice of an appropriately qualified and licensed physician or other health care provider. The information provided here is for educational and informational purposes only. In no way should it be considered as offering medical advice. Please check with a physician if you suspect you are ill.