Pediatric Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia 

  • Author: Robin H Steinhorn, MD; Chief Editor: Ted Rosenkrantz, MD   more...
 
Updated: Oct 13, 2010
 

Background

The topic of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) has frequently appeared in the medical literature since its first description in the early 18th century. Initial theories about the pathophysiology of this condition centered on the presence of the herniated viscera within the chest and the need for its prompt removal.

In 1946, Gross reported the first successful repair of a neonatal diaphragmatic hernia in the first 24 hours of life.[1] The medical literature for the next decade addressed congenital diaphragmatic hernia as a surgical problem and discussed various technical aspects of surgical repair, including techniques required to close large defects. In the 1960s, however, Areechon and Reid observed that the high mortality rate of congenital diaphragmatic hernia was related to the degree of pulmonary hypoplasia at birth.[2]

Over the past 20 years, pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary hypoplasia have been recognized as the 2 cornerstones of the pathophysiology of congenital diaphragmatic hernia. In recent years, evidence suggests that cardiac maldevelopment may further complicate the pathophysiology of congenital diaphragmatic hernia.[3]

Radiograph of a 1-day-old infant with a moderate-sRadiograph of a 1-day-old infant with a moderate-sized congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). Note the air- and fluid-filled bowel loops in the left chest, the moderate shift of the mediastinum into the right chest, and the position of the orogastric tube.
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Pathophysiology

The 3 basic types of congenital diaphragmatic hernia include the posterolateral Bochdalek hernia (occurring at approximately 6 weeks' gestation), the anterior Morgagni hernia, and the hiatus hernia. The left-sided Bochdalek hernia occurs in approximately 85% of cases. Left-sided hernias allow herniation of both the small and large bowel and intraabdominal solid organs into the thoracic cavity. In right-sided hernias (13% of cases), only the liver and a portion of the large bowel tend to herniate. Bilateral hernias are uncommon and are usually fatal.[4]

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia is characterized by a variable degree of pulmonary hypoplasia associated with a decrease in cross-sectional area of the pulmonary vasculature and alterations of the surfactant system. The lungs have a small alveolar capillary membrane for gas exchange, which may be further decreased by surfactant dysfunction. In addition to parenchymal disease, increased muscularization of the intraacinar pulmonary arteries appears to occur. In very severe cases, left ventricular hypoplasia is observed. Pulmonary capillary blood flow is decreased because of the small cross-sectional area of the pulmonary vascular bed, and flow may be further decreased by abnormal pulmonary vasoconstriction.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

International

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia occurs in 1 of every 2000-3000 live births and accounts for 8% of all major congenital anomalies. The risk of recurrence of isolated (ie, nonsyndromic) congenital diaphragmatic hernia in future siblings is approximately 2%.[5] Familial congenital diaphragmatic hernia is rare (< 2% of all cases), and both autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant patterns of inheritance have been reported. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a recognized finding in Cornelia de Lange syndrome and also occurs as a prominent feature of Fryns syndrome, an autosomal recessive disorder with variable features, including diaphragmatic hernia, cleft lip or palate, and distal digital hypoplasia.

Mortality/Morbidity

Mortality has traditionally been difficult to determine. This is partially because of the "hidden mortality" for this condition, which refers to infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia who die in utero or shortly after birth, prior to transfer to a surgical site. This bias may be especially important when evaluating institutional reports of outcome.

A population-based study from Western Australia indicated that only 61% of infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia are live born. In that study, nearly 33% of pregnancies that involved a fetus with congenital diaphragmatic hernia were electively terminated. Most of the pregnancies (71%) were terminated because of the presence of another major anomaly.

Mortality after live birth is generally reported to range from 40-62%, and some authors argue that the true mortality of congenital diaphragmatic hernia has not changed with introduction of new therapies. The presence of associated anomalies has consistently been associated with decreased survival; other associations with poor outcome include prenatal diagnosis, prematurity, low birth weight, and early pneumothorax.

Keller et al found that infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia who have poor outcomes (death or discharge on oxygen) have higher plasma levels of endothelin-1, which is dysregulated in pulmonary hypertension.[6] Severity of pulmonary hypertension was also associated with increasing endothelin-1 levels.

Sex

Most studies report that congenital diaphragmatic hernia occurs equally in males and females.

Age

Although congenital diaphragmatic hernia is usually a disorder of the newborn period, as many as 10% of patients may present after the newborn period and even during adulthood. Outcome in patients with late presentation of congenital diaphragmatic hernia is extremely good, with low or no mortality.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Robin H Steinhorn, MD  Raymond and Hazel Speck Berry Professor of Pediatrics, Division Head of Neonatology, Associate Chair of Pediatrics, Northwestern University School of Medicine

Robin H Steinhorn, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Heart Association, American Pediatric Society, American Thoracic Society, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Nicolas FM Porta, MD, FAAP  Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Northwestern University, The Feinberg School of Medicine

Nicolas FM Porta, MD, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: United Therapeutics Consulting fee Consulting

Specialty Editor Board

David N Sheftel, MD  Director, Division of Neonatology, Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Lutheran General Children's Hospital of Park Ridge, Chicago Medical School

David N Sheftel, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine and American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Arun K Pramanik, MD, MBBS  Professor of Pediatrics, Director of Neonatal Fellowship, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

Arun K Pramanik, MD, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Thoracic Society, National Perinatal Association, and Southern Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Carol L Wagner, MD  Professor of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina

Carol L Wagner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Chemical Society, American Medical Women's Association, American Public Health Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Massachusetts Medical Society, National Perinatal Association, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Ted Rosenkrantz, MD  Professor, Departments of Pediatrics and Obstetrics/Gynecology, Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, University of Connecticut School of Medicine

Ted Rosenkrantz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Pediatric Society, Connecticut State Medical Society, Eastern Society for Pediatric Research, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

References

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Radiograph of a 1-day-old infant with a moderate-sized congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). Note the air- and fluid-filled bowel loops in the left chest, the moderate shift of the mediastinum into the right chest, and the position of the orogastric tube.
 
 
 
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