Hematuria 

Hematuria is one of the most common urinary findings that result in children presenting to pediatric nephrologists. Generally, hematuria is defined as the presence of 5 or more RBCs per high-power field in 3 of 3 consecutive centrifuged specimens obtained at least 1 week apart. In the office setting, a positive reaction on the urine dipstick test is usually the first indication of the presence of hematuria. Hematuria can be gross (ie, the urine is overtly bloody, smoky, or tea colored) or microscopic. It may be symptomatic or asymptomatic, transient or persistent, and either isolated or associated with proteinuria and other urinary abnormalities. The role of the primary care physician in the management of a child with hematuria includes the following:

• Recognize and confirm the finding of hematuria.
• Identify common etiologies.
• Select patients who have significant urinary system disease that might require further expertise in either diagnosis or management and referral.

The etiology and pathophysiology of hematuria vary. For instance, hematuria of glomerular origin may be the result of a structural disruption in the integrity of glomerular basement membrane caused by inflammatory or immunologic processes. Chemicals may cause toxic disruptions of the renal tubules, whereas calculi may cause mechanical erosion of mucosal surfaces in the genitourinary tract, resulting in hematuria.

Frequency

United States

The prevalence of gross hematuria in children is estimated to be 0.13%. In more than half of the cases (56%) this is due to an easily identifiable cause. The most common cause appears to be cystitis (20-25%). Asymptomatic microscopic hematuria is, on the average, 10-fold as prevalent as gross hematuria (1.5%, range 0.4-4.1%, depending on the criteria used to define hematuria). With repeated evaluations, the prevalence of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria decreases to less than 0.5%, supporting the notion that most cases of hematuria in children are transient. The incidence of simultaneous hematuria and proteinuria is estimated to be only 0.06%, but their coexistence signals significant renal disease.

Mortality/Morbidity

In general, children with isolated asymptomatic microscopic hematuria tend to do well, whereas those with associated findings (eg, hypertension, proteinuria, abnormal serum creatinine levels) are more likely to have serious problems. Because hematuria is the end result of various processes, the morbidity and mortality rates of the condition depend on the primary process that initiated it.

Race

The incidence of hematuria in specific racial groups is determined by the primary cause. For example, idiopathic hypercalciuria is infrequent in black and Asian children, but relatively common in whites. Conversely, hematuria caused by sickle cell disease is more common in blacks than in whites.

Sex

Sex may predispose a child to specific diseases that manifest as hematuria. For example, the sex-linked form of Alport syndrome has a male preponderance, whereas lupus nephritis is more common in adolescent girls.

Age

Prevalence of certain conditions varies with age.^[1] For instance, Wilms tumors are more frequent in children of preschool age, whereas acute postinfectious glomerulonephritis is more frequent in the school-aged population. In adults, hematuria is often a sign of malignancy of the genitourinary tract (eg, renal cell carcinoma, bladder tumors, prostatic tumors). These conditions are rare in children.