Pediatric Hepatocellular Carcinoma Clinical Presentation

  • Author: Girindra G Raval, MD; Chief Editor: Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA   more...
 
Updated: Sep 8, 2011
 

History

Elements to ascertain include a prior history of hepatitis B or hepatitis C, chronic cirrhosis, or other diseases that tend to induce liver dysfunction. Co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may further enhance a patient's risk for developing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Most patients complain of abdominal pain, weight loss, and diminished appetite. In patients with a history of chronic liver disease, a change in routine symptoms may indicate the presence of a liver tumor.

Most patients with hepatocellular carcinoma present with a slowly enlarging, right upper-quadrant mass that may be found during a routine physical examination, brought to medical attention by the patient, or discovered by the patient's parents. Many children also experience localized pain, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss. Nearly 25% of patients present with jaundice.

In adults, chronic hepatitis secondary to alcohol exposure, infection with hepatitis, and hereditary hemochromatosis are predisposing factors. Aflatoxins and other environmental factors also are likely to play a role in the pathogenesis in adults. In comparison, children are far more likely to have inherited errors of metabolism, such as tyrosinemia or urea cycle enzymopathies. Liver diseases that cause cirrhosis increase risk for developing hepatocellular carcinoma (eg, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency).

Children with biliary atresia, chronic cholestasis, or glycogen-storage diseases are at increased risk. Symptoms can be masked in children with preexisting hepatic diseases, and, accordingly, a change in a chronic disease pattern merits careful consideration for the possibility of a new malignancy.

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Physical

The physical examination often reveals abnormalities attributable to a hepatic tumor. In advanced cases, or when the primary tumor is large, the liver may be palpable below the right costal margin. In addition, deep palpation often reveals pain, especially over the location of the liver. Scleral icterus and other signs of jaundice are frequent. The patient's history also may indicate weight loss, the extent of which may be observed during the examination. In patients in whom metastatic disease to the lungs is in question, percussion of the lungs may reveal a difference in density, suggesting a pleural effusion. Other painful sites discovered on the examination should lead to radiographic imaging to determine the extent of malignant spread. This is particularly true for bone pain at presentation.

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Causes

Although no cause has been clearly elucidated, the risk factors for children and adolescents include a history of hepatitis B or C, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, hereditary tyrosinemia, Gaucher disease, congenital biliary atresia, urea cycle defects, severe iron overload (as occurs with thalassemia or sickle cell disease requiring chronic blood transfusion), or other forms of chronic cirrhosis or liver dysfunction. Acquired hepatitis C from blood product transfusions is an important risk factor because the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic hepatitis C and cirrhosis is highest (2-8% per year).

In areas of the world where hepatitis B or C are endemic, the incidence is likely to be proportionally increased in children and adolescents.

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Contributor Information and Disclosures
Author

Girindra G Raval, MD  Staff Physician, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Arkansas School of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Paulette Mehta, MD, MPH  Professor of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Co-Director of Fellowship Program, Medical Director of Hematology/Oncology at CAVHS, University Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Hospital System

Paulette Mehta, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation, American Society of Clinical Oncology, and American Society of Hematology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Stephan A Grupp, MD, PhD  Director, Stem Cell Biology Program, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Oncology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; Associate Professor of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine

Stephan A Grupp, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation, American Society of Hematology, American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD  Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Steven K Bergstrom, MD  Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Kaiser Permanente Medical Center of Oakland

Steven K Bergstrom, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Society of Clinical Oncology, American Society of Hematology, American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Children's Oncology Group, and International Society for Experimental Hematology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Helen SL Chan, MBBS, FRCP(C), FAAP  Senior Scientist, Research Institute; Professor, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Canada

Helen SL Chan, MBBS, FRCP(C), FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Cancer Research, American Society of Hematology, and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA  Senior Vice President, Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders, Children's National Medical Center; Professor of Medicine, Oncology, and Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine; Clinical Professor of Pediatrics, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences

Max J Coppes, MD, PhD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgments

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Stuart Winter, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

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