Pediatric Bronchitis Differential Diagnoses

1. Horner CC, Bacharier LB. Diagnosis and management of asthma in preschool and school-age children: focus on the 2007 NAEPP Guidelines. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2009 Jan. 15(1):52-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Brodzinski H, Ruddy RM. Review of new and newly discovered respiratory tract viruses in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2009 May. 25(5):352-60; quiz 361-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Miron D, Srugo I, Kra-Oz Z, Keness Y, Wolf D, Amirav I, et al. Sole pathogen in acute bronchiolitis: is there a role for other organisms apart from respiratory syncytial virus?. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010 Jan. 29(1):e7-e10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Voynow JA, Rubin BK. Mucins, mucus, and sputum. Chest. 2009 Feb. 135(2):505-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Mall MA. Role of cilia, mucus, and airway surface liquid in mucociliary dysfunction: lessons from mouse models. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv. 2008 Mar. 21(1):13-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Kreindler JL, Jackson AD, Kemp PA, Bridges RJ, Danahay H. Inhibition of chloride secretion in human bronchial epithelial cells by cigarette smoke extract. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2005 May. 288(5):L894-902. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

7. McConnell R, Berhane K, Gilliland F, Molitor J, Thomas D, Lurmann F, et al. Prospective study of air pollution and bronchitic symptoms in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003 Oct 1. 168(7):790-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

8. Brieu N, Guyon G, Rodière M, Segondy M, Foulongne V. Human bocavirus infection in children with respiratory tract disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008 Nov. 27(11):969-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Schildgen O, Müller A, Allander T, Mackay IM, Völz S, Kupfer B, et al. Human bocavirus: passenger or pathogen in acute respiratory tract infections?. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008 Apr. 21(2):291-304, table of contents. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

10. Allander T. Human bocavirus. J Clin Virol. 2008 Jan. 41(1):29-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Koehoorn M, Karr CJ, Demers PA, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Brauer M. Descriptive epidemiological features of bronchiolitis in a population-based cohort. Pediatrics. 2008 Dec. 122(6):1196-203. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Tsai CH, Huang JH, Hwang BF, Lee YL. Household environmental tobacco smoke and risks of asthma, wheeze and bronchitic symptoms among children in Taiwan. Respir Res. 2010 Jan 29. 11:11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

13. Ghosh R, Rossner P, Honkova K, Dostal M, Sram RJ, Hertz-Picciotto I. Air pollution and childhood bronchitis: Interaction with xenobiotic, immune regulatory and DNA repair genes. Environ Int. 2016 Feb. 87:94-100. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Bidiwala A, Krilov LR, Pirzada M, Patel SJ. Pro-Con Debate: Protracted Bacterial Bronchitis as a Cause of Chronic Cough in Children. Pediatr Ann. 2015 Aug. 44 (8):329-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Marsh RL, Binks MJ, Smith-Vaughan HC, Janka M, Clark S, Richmond P, et al. Prevalence and subtyping of biofilms present in bronchoalveolar lavage from children with protracted bacterial bronchitis or non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: a cross-sectional study. Lancet Microbe. 2022 Mar. 3 (3):e215-e223. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Di Filippo P, Scaparrotta A, Petrosino MI, Attanasi M, Di Pillo S, Chiarelli F, et al. An underestimated cause of chronic cough: The Protracted Bacterial Bronchitis. Ann Thorac Med. 2018 Jan-Mar. 13 (1):7-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Marsh RL, Smith-Vaughan HC, Chen ACH, Marchant JM, Yerkovich ST, Gibson PG, et al. Multiple Respiratory Microbiota Profiles Are Associated With Lower Airway Inflammation in Children With Protracted Bacterial Bronchitis. Chest. 2019 Jan 17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Escribano Montaner A, García de Lomas J, Villa Asensi JR, Asensio de la Cruz O, de la Serna Blázquez O, Santiago Burruchaga M, et al. Bacteria from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from children with suspected chronic lower respiratory tract infection: results from a multi-center, cross-sectional study in Spain. Eur J Pediatr. 2018 Feb. 177 (2):181-192. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Armstrong D. Long-term follow-up of children with protracted bacterial bronchitis: Some answers, and more questions. Respirology. 2021 Mar. 26 (3):218-219. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Chang AB, Oppenheimer JJ, Weinberger MM, Rubin BK, Grant CC, Weir K, et al. Management of Children With Chronic Wet Cough and Protracted Bacterial Bronchitis: CHEST Guideline and Expert Panel Report. Chest. 2017 Apr. 151 (4):884-890. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Kantar A, Chang AB, Shields MD, Marchant JM, Grimwood K, Grigg J, et al. ERS statement on protracted bacterial bronchitis in children. Eur Respir J. 2017 Aug. 50 (2):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Brooks K, Caruthers RL, Schumacher KR, Stringer KA. Pharmacotherapy challenges of fontan-associated plastic bronchitis: a rare pediatric disease. Pharmacotherapy. 2013 Sep. 33(9):922-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

23. Singhi AK, Vinoth B, Kuruvilla S, Sivakumar K. Plastic bronchitis. Ann Pediatr Cardiol. 2015 Sep-Dec. 8 (3):246-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

24. Li Y, Williams RJ, Dombrowski ND, Watters K, Daly KP, Irace AL, et al. Current evaluation and management of plastic bronchitis in the pediatric population. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2020 Mar. 130:109799. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Zaccagni HJ, Kirchner L, Brownlee J, Bloom K. A case of plastic bronchitis presenting 9 years after Fontan. Pediatr Cardiol. 2008 Jan. 29(1):157-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Zahorec M, Kovacikova L, Martanovic P, Skrak P, Kunovsky P. The use of high-frequency jet ventilation for removal of obstructing casts in patients with plastic bronchitis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2009 May. 10(3):e34-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Rubin BK. Plastic Bronchitis. Clin Chest Med. 2016 Sep. 37 (3):405-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Shah SS, Drinkwater DC, Christian KG. Plastic bronchitis: is thoracic duct ligation a real surgical option?. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006 Jun. 81(6):2281-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. DePopas EM, Veress LA, Ahmed F, Rausch CM, Annam A, Gupta R. Percutaneous thoracic duct intervention to treat plastic bronchitis related to Fontan palliation. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017 Nov. 52 (11):E97-E101. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Patel N, Patel M, Inja R, Krvavac A, Lechner AJ. Plastic Bronchitis in Adult and Pediatric Patients: A Review of its Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Mo Med. 2021 Jul-Aug. 118 (4):363-373. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. US Department of Health and Human Services. Vital and Health Statistics. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 1991 Summary. Series 13: Data from the National Health Survey No. 116. DHHS Publication; May 1994.

32. Weigl JA, Puppe W, Belke O, Neusüss J, Bagci F, Schmitt HJ. The descriptive epidemiology of severe lower respiratory tract infections in children in Kiel, Germany. Klin Padiatr. 2005 Sep-Oct. 217(5):259-67. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Berhane K, Chang CC, McConnell R, et al. Association of Changes in Air Quality With Bronchitic Symptoms in Children in California, 1993-2012. JAMA. 2016 Apr 12. 315 (14):1491-501. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Seaman AM. Drop in Air Pollution Tied to Better Breathing Among Kids. Medscape. 2016 Apr 13. [Full Text].

35. Perret JL, Wurzel D, Walters EH, et al. Childhood 'bronchitis' and respiratory outcomes in middle-age: a prospective cohort study from age 7 to 53 years. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2022 Jun. 9 (1):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

36. Allinson JP, Chaturvedi N, Wong A, et al. Early childhood lower respiratory tract infection and premature adult death from respiratory disease in Great Britain: a national birth cohort study. Lancet. 2023 Mar 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Usta Guc B, Asilsoy S, Durmaz C. The assessment and management of chronic cough in children according to the British Thoracic Society guidelines: descriptive, prospective, clinical trial. Clin Respir J. 2013 Nov 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Brunton S, Carmichael BP, Colgan R, Feeney AS, Fendrick AM, Quintiliani R, et al. Acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: a primary care consensus guideline. Am J Manag Care. 2004 Oct. 10(10):689-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Stiehm ER. The four most common pediatric immunodeficiencies. J Immunotoxicol. 2008 Apr. 5(2):227-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Ozkan H, Atlihan F, Genel F, Targan S, Gunvar T. IgA and/or IgG subclass deficiency in children with recurrent respiratory infections and its relationship with chronic pulmonary damage. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2005. 15(1):69-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Kainulainen L, Nikoskelainen J, Ruuskanen O. Diagnostic findings in 95 Finnish patients with common variable immunodeficiency. J Clin Immunol. 2001 Mar. 21(2):145-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Nelson MR, Adamski CR, Tluczek A. Clinical practices for intermediate sweat tests following abnormal cystic fibrosis newborn screens. J Cyst Fibros. 2011 Dec. 10(6):460-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

43. Donnelly JP, Baddley JW, Wang HE. Antibiotic utilization for acute respiratory tract infections in u.s. Emergency departments. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014 Mar. 58(3):1451-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Kronman MP, Zhou C, Mangione-Smith R. Bacterial prevalence and antimicrobial prescribing trends for acute respiratory tract infections. Pediatrics. 2014 Oct. 134 (4):e956-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Frellick M. Antibiotics Prescribed for Kids at Twice Expected Rate. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/831684. September 15, 2014; Accessed: June 16, 2015.

46. Ivanovska V, Hek K, Mantel-Teeuwisse AK, Leufkens HGM, van Dijk L. Age-Specific Antibiotic Prescribing and Adherence to Guidelines in Pediatric Patients in Primary Care. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018 Mar. 37 (3):218-223. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Barnett ML, Linder JA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with acute bronchitis in the United States, 1996-2010. JAMA. 2014 May 21. 311 (19):2020-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Frellick M. Antibiotic Scripts for Bronchitis Common Despite Guidelines. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/825471. May 21, 2014; Accessed: June 16, 2015.

49. Kamin W, Maydannik VG, Malek FA, Kieser M. Efficacy and tolerability of EPs 7630 in patients (aged 6-18 years old) with acute bronchitis. Acta Paediatr. 2010 Apr. 99(4):537-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

50. Kamin W, Maydannik V, Malek FA, Kieser M. Efficacy and tolerability of EPs 7630 in children and adolescents with acute bronchitis - a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial with a herbal drug preparation from Pelargonium sidoides roots. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010 Mar. 48(3):184-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Marchant J, Masters IB, Champion A, Petsky H, Chang AB. Randomised controlled trial of amoxycillin clavulanate in children with chronic wet cough. Thorax. 2012 Aug. 67(8):689-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Cronin J, Kennedy U, McCoy S, An Fhailí SN, Crispino-O'Connell G, Hayden J, et al. Single dose oral dexamethasone versus multi-dose prednisolone in the treatment of acute exacerbations of asthma in children who attend the emergency department: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2012 Aug 21. 13:141. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

53. Beckhaus AA, Riutort MC, Castro-Rodriguez JA. Inhaled versus systemic corticosteroids for acute asthma in children. A systematic review. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2013 Aug 8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Ray WA, Murray KT, Hall K, Arbogast PG, Stein CM. Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death. N Engl J Med. 2012 May 17. 366(20):1881-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

55. Giudicessi JR, Ackerman MJ. Azithromycin and risk of sudden cardiac death: guilty as charged or falsely accused?. Cleve Clin J Med. 2013 Sep. 80(9):539-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

Patrick L Carolan, MD Adjunct Associate Professor, Departments of Pediatrics, Family Practice, and Community Health, University of Minnesota Medical School; Medical Director of Minnesota Sudden Infant Death Center; Attending Staff, Department of Emergency Services, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota

Patrick L Carolan, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, International Society for the Study and Prevention of Perinatal and Infant Death

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Girish D Sharma, MD, FCCP, FAAP Professor of Pediatrics, Rush Medical College; Director, Section of Pediatric Pulmonology and Rush Cystic Fibrosis Center, Rush Children's Hospital, Rush University Medical Center

Girish D Sharma, MD, FCCP, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, Royal College of Physicians of Ireland

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Charles Callahan, DO Professor, Deputy Chief of Clinical Services, Walter Reed Army Medical Center

Charles Callahan, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Osteopathic Pediatricians, American Thoracic Society, Association of Military Surgeons of the US, and Christian Medical & Dental Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Christine D Dittmer, MD Resident Physician, Department of Pediatrics, Tripler Army Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Thomas Scanlin, MD Chief, Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Cystic Fibrosis Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School

Thomas Scanlin, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, American Thoracic Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article